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Volumn 29, Issue 1, 2009, Pages 33-46

What was revolutionary about the Iranian revolution? The power of possibility

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY; POLITICAL HISTORY; POPULAR PROTEST;

EID: 64349116489     PISSN: 1089201X     EISSN: 1548226X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1215/1089201X-2008-042     Document Type: Article
Times cited : (6)

References (205)
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    • Robert Darnton, "What Was Revolutionary about the French Revolution?" New York Review of Books 35 (19 January 1989): 10.
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    • A Historical View of Western Reporting on China
    • Tracking down an authoritative source for this is elusive, perhaps because it never happened; see
    • Tracking down an authoritative source for this is elusive, perhaps because it never happened; see John Gittings, "A Historical View of Western Reporting on China," China Media Research 3 (2007): 61.
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    • Iran: The Adolescent Revolution
    • Most versions attribute the remark to Zhou, and some assign it to Mao Tse-tung; most versions include U.S. secretary of state Henry Kissinger, though some name French ambassador André Malraux. Unsourced accounts are rife, including by respected scholars in reputable journals. Gary Sick names Malraux and also invokes it with regard to Iran. See
    • Most versions attribute the remark to Zhou, and some assign it to Mao Tse-tung; most versions include U.S. secretary of state Henry Kissinger, though some name French ambassador André Malraux. Unsourced accounts are rife, including by respected scholars in reputable journals. Gary Sick names Malraux and also invokes it with regard to Iran. See Gary Sick, "Iran: The Adolescent Revolution," Journal of International Affairs 49 (1995): 145.
    • (1995) Journal of International Affairs , vol.49 , pp. 145
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    • The Four-Stroke Cycle in Security Studies
    • See also
    • See also Gwyn Prins, "The Four-Stroke Cycle in Security Studies," International Affairs 74 (1998): 793;
    • (1998) International Affairs , vol.74 , pp. 793
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    • 84937188127 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Unfinished Revolution of 1989
    • Tina Rosenberg, "The Unfinished Revolution of 1989," Foreign Policy 115 (1999): 91;
    • (1999) Foreign Policy , vol.115 , pp. 91
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    • 64349087355 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Architecture of China's Diplomatic Edge
    • Michael Vatikiotis, "The Architecture of China's Diplomatic Edge," Brown Journal of World Affairs 12 (2005-6): 27;
    • Brown Journal of World Affairs , vol.12 , Issue.2005-2006 , pp. 27
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    • 33749382290 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Free Will Revolution (Continued)
    • John Fischer, "The Free Will Revolution (Continued)," Journal of Ethics 10 (2006): 340;
    • (2006) Journal of Ethics , vol.10 , pp. 340
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  • 8
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    • or Leon Aron, Ideas of Revolutions and Revolutionary Ideas, Demokratizatsiya 14 (2006): 443.
    • or Leon Aron, "Ideas of Revolutions and Revolutionary Ideas," Demokratizatsiya 14 (2006): 443.
  • 14
    • 64349091642 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • or Theda Skocpol, States and Social Revolutions: A Comparative Analysis of France, Russia, and China (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979), 3.
    • or Theda Skocpol, States and Social Revolutions: A Comparative Analysis of France, Russia, and China (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979), 3.
  • 15
    • 64349092538 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The revolutions of France, Russia, and China seem to be more or less universally recognized by scholars, politicians, and regular people as the great revolutions. As noted, this list is at times expanded to include Mexico, Cuba (more often), Nicaragua, and Iran, dubbed the last such revolution by Robin Wright. Wright, The Last Great Revolution: Turmoil and Transformation in Iran (New York: Knopf, 2000).
    • The revolutions of France, Russia, and China seem to be more or less universally recognized by scholars, politicians, and regular people as the "great revolutions." As noted, this list is at times expanded to include Mexico, Cuba (more often), Nicaragua, and Iran, dubbed the "last" such revolution by Robin Wright. Wright, The Last Great Revolution: Turmoil and Transformation in Iran (New York: Knopf, 2000).
  • 16
    • 2642529137 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Intellectuals, Social Classes, and Revolution
    • A nice summation of the France, Russia, China perspective can be found in, ed. Theda Skocpol Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press
    • A nice summation of the "France, Russia, China" perspective can be found in Michael Walzer, "Intellectuals, Social Classes, and Revolution," in Democracy, Revolution, and History, ed. Theda Skocpol (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1999), 128.
    • (1999) Democracy, Revolution, and History , pp. 128
    • Walzer, M.1
  • 17
    • 64349121228 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • While it is beyond the scope of this essay, a comparison might be made with these revolutions' other twin, as it were. Nicaragua and Grenada have been explored somewhat in Eric Selbin, Modern Latin American Revolutions, 2nd ed, Boulder, CO: Westview, 1999;
    • While it is beyond the scope of this essay, a comparison might be made with these revolutions' other "twin," as it were. Nicaragua and Grenada have been explored somewhat in Eric Selbin, Modern Latin American Revolutions, 2nd ed. (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1999);
  • 19
    • 64349107164 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Afghanistan's 1978 revolution has been examined with the Iranian case in Valentine Moghadam, Revolution, the State, Islam, and Women: Gender Politics in Iran and Afghanistan, Social Text 22 (1989): 40-61;
    • Afghanistan's 1978 revolution has been examined with the Iranian case in Valentine Moghadam, "Revolution, the State, Islam, and Women: Gender Politics in Iran and Afghanistan," Social Text 22 (1989): 40-61;
  • 20
    • 0001971539 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Gender and Revolutions
    • ed. John Foran New York: Routledge
    • Moghadam, "Gender and Revolutions," in Theorizing Revolutions, ed. John Foran (New York: Routledge, 1997), 137-65;
    • (1997) Theorizing Revolutions , pp. 137-165
    • Moghadam1
  • 21
    • 84937188795 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Revolution, Religion, and Gender Politics: Iran and Afghanistan Compared
    • Moghadam, "Revolution, Religion, and Gender Politics: Iran and Afghanistan Compared," Journal of Women's History 10 (1999): 172-95;
    • (1999) Journal of Women's History , vol.10 , pp. 172-195
    • Moghadam1
  • 23
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    • A Tale of Two Countries: State, Society, and Gender Politics in Iran and Afghanistan
    • Moghadam, "A Tale of Two Countries: State, Society, and Gender Politics in Iran and Afghanistan," Muslim World 94 (2004): 449-67;
    • (2004) Muslim World , vol.94 , pp. 449-467
    • Moghadam1
  • 24
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    • Revolution, Nationalism, and Global Justice: Towards Social Transformation with Women
    • Foran et al
    • and Moghadam, "Revolution, Nationalism, and Global Justice: Towards Social Transformation with Women," in Foran et al., Revolution in the Making, 112-29.
    • Revolution in the Making , pp. 112-129
    • Moghadam1
  • 25
    • 64349111227 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • On Cuba's importance, see, among many others, Eric Selbin, Conjugating the Cuban Revolution, Latin American Perspectives 36 (forthcoming).
    • On Cuba's importance, see, among many others, Eric Selbin, "Conjugating the Cuban Revolution," Latin American Perspectives 36 (forthcoming).
  • 27
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    • Revolutionary Outcomes in Iran and Nicaragua: Coalition Fragmentation, War, and the Limits of Social Transformation
    • John Foran and Jeff Goodwin, "Revolutionary Outcomes in Iran and Nicaragua: Coalition Fragmentation, War, and the Limits of Social Transformation," Theory and Society 22 (1993): 214.
    • (1993) Theory and Society , vol.22 , pp. 214
    • Foran, J.1    Goodwin, J.2
  • 28
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    • On the event's distinctiveness, see, New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press
    • On the event's distinctiveness, see Misagh Parsa, Social Origins of the Iranian Revolution (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1989), 2;
    • (1989) Social Origins of the Iranian Revolution , pp. 2
    • Parsa, M.1
  • 30
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    • On its uniqueness, see, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press
    • On its uniqueness, see Ervand Abrahamian, Iran between Two Revolutions (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1982), 530;
    • (1982) Iran between Two Revolutions , pp. 530
    • Abrahamian, E.1
  • 32
    • 64349123777 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • but see also Valentine Moghadam, One Revolution or Two? The Iranian Revolution and the Islamic Republic, in Revolution Today: Aspirations and Realities; Socialist Register, 1989, ed. Ralph Miliband, Leo Panitch, and John Saville (London: Merlin, 1989), 74.
    • but see also Valentine Moghadam, "One Revolution or Two? The Iranian Revolution and the Islamic Republic," in Revolution Today: Aspirations and Realities; Socialist Register, 1989, ed. Ralph Miliband, Leo Panitch, and John Saville (London: Merlin, 1989), 74.
  • 33
    • 4344684068 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • On the event as unthinkable, see, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press
    • On the event as "unthinkable," see Charles Kurzman, The Unthinkable Revolution in Iran (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004).
    • (2004) The Unthinkable Revolution in Iran
    • Kurzman, C.1
  • 36
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    • Rentier State and Shi'a Islam in the Iranian Revolution
    • Theda Skocpol, "Rentier State and Shi'a Islam in the Iranian Revolution," Theory and Society 11 (1982): 265;
    • (1982) Theory and Society , vol.11 , pp. 265
    • Skocpol, T.1
  • 37
    • 64349114171 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Eric Hobsbawm, Revolution, in Revolution in History, ed. Roy Porter and Mikuláš? Teich (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), 37n21;
    • Eric Hobsbawm, "Revolution," in Revolution in History, ed. Roy Porter and Mikuláš? Teich (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), 37n21;
  • 38
    • 21344446697 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Ideology, Culture, and Ambiguity: The Revolutionary Process in Iran
    • Gene Burns, "Ideology, Culture, and Ambiguity: The Revolutionary Process in Iran," Theory and Society 25 (1996): 358;
    • (1996) Theory and Society , vol.25 , pp. 358
    • Burns, G.1
  • 42
    • 64349120550 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Sophisticated and nuanced fine-tuning on this is found in the work of Valentine Moghadam. Moghadam has variously described it as, among other things, a populist political revolution, in Moghadam, One Revolution or Two, 75; a populist, anti-imperialist social revolution, in Moghadam, Populist Revolution and the Islamic State in Iran, in Revolution in the World-System: Studies in the Political Economy of the World-System, ed. Terry Boswell (New York: Greenwood, 1989), 149
    • Sophisticated and nuanced fine-tuning on this is found in the work of Valentine Moghadam. Moghadam has variously described it as, among other things, a populist political revolution, in Moghadam, "One Revolution or Two," 75; "a populist, anti-imperialist social revolution," in Moghadam, "Populist Revolution and the Islamic State in Iran," in Revolution in the World-System: Studies in the Political Economy of the World-System, ed. Terry Boswell (New York: Greenwood, 1989), 149
  • 43
    • 64349102452 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A populist but not social revolution, in Moghadam, Introduction and Overview, in Gender and National Identity: Women and Politics in Muslim Societies, ed. Valentine Moghadam (London: Zed Books, 1994), 10-11;
    • A populist but not social revolution, in Moghadam, "Introduction and Overview," in Gender and National Identity: Women and Politics in Muslim Societies, ed. Valentine Moghadam (London: Zed Books, 1994), 10-11;
  • 44
    • 64349120552 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • and a social transformation of a revolutionary type, in Moghadam, Gender and Revolutionary Transformation: Iran 1979 and East Central Europe 1989, Gender and Society 19 (1995): 330.
    • and a "social transformation of a revolutionary type," in Moghadam, "Gender and Revolutionary Transformation: Iran 1979 and East Central Europe 1989," Gender and Society 19 (1995): 330.
  • 45
    • 64349087586 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • How Might Revolutions of the Future Have Better Outcomes? Third Thematic Discussion
    • ed. John Foran New York: Zed Books
    • John Foran, "How Might Revolutions of the Future Have Better Outcomes? Third Thematic Discussion," in The Future of Revolutions in the Context of Globalization, ed. John Foran (New York: Zed Books, 2003), 284-99.
    • (2003) The Future of Revolutions in the Context of Globalization , pp. 284-299
    • Foran, J.1
  • 46
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    • On the inclusion of Jamaica, Guatemala, and Chile, see
    • On the inclusion of Jamaica, Guatemala, and Chile, see Foran, Taking Power;
    • Taking Power
    • Foran1
  • 47
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    • John Foran, Jack A. Goldstone
    • John Foran, Jack A. Goldstone,
  • 48
    • 64349098599 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • and Eric Selbin, Understanding Revolution (Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge, forthcoming).
    • and Eric Selbin, Understanding Revolution (Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge, forthcoming).
  • 51
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    • Was Fascism Revolutionary?
    • But see, 122 2002, 79n123. Pellicani invokes Reich minister Joseph Goebbels to suggest that while fascism was not revolutionary, the Nazis were
    • But see Luciano Pellicani, "Was Fascism Revolutionary?" Telos 122 (2002): 79n123. Pellicani invokes Reich minister Joseph Goebbels to suggest that while fascism was not revolutionary, the Nazis were.
    • Telos
    • Pellicani, L.1
  • 52
    • 64349096760 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • John Foran, Introduction to the Future of Revolutions, in Foran, Future of Revolutions, 15n5.
    • John Foran, "Introduction to the Future of Revolutions," in Foran, Future of Revolutions, 15n5.
  • 53
    • 64349112473 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Karen Kampwirth, Marching with the Taliban or Dancing with the Zapatistas? Revolution after the Cold War, in Foran, Future of Revolutions, 239n1.
    • Karen Kampwirth, "Marching with the Taliban or Dancing with the Zapatistas? Revolution after the Cold War," in Foran, Future of Revolutions, 239n1.
  • 60
    • 64349098162 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For those less familiar with the basics, James DeFronzo offers a concise narrative that manages both some depth and some breadth. See, 3rd ed, Boulder, CO: Westview
    • For those less familiar with the basics, James DeFronzo offers a concise narrative that manages both some depth and some breadth. See DeFronzo, Revolutions and Revolutionary Movements, 3rd ed. (Boulder, CO: Westview, 2007), 275-321.
    • (2007) Revolutions and Revolutionary Movements , pp. 275-321
    • DeFronzo1
  • 62
    • 64349104400 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Darnton is almost certainly standing on the shoulders here of the nineteenth-century French historian Jules Michelet, who said of France 1789: On that day everything was possible, the future was present, that is to say time was no more, all a lightening flash of eternity. Cited in Michael Kimmel, Revolution: A Sociological Interpretation Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1990, 186
    • Darnton is almost certainly standing on the shoulders here of the nineteenth-century French historian Jules Michelet, who said of France 1789: "On that day everything was possible... the future was present... that is to say time was no more, all a lightening flash of eternity." Cited in Michael Kimmel, Revolution: A Sociological Interpretation (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1990), 186.
  • 63
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    • See also Hannah Arendt's compelling formulation that an entirely new story, a story never known or told before, is about to unfold; people, she goes on to argue, believe that they are agents in a process which spells the end of the old order and brings the birth of the new world. Hannah Arendt, On Revolution (New York: Penguin, 1965), 28 and 42, respectively.
    • See also Hannah Arendt's compelling formulation "that an entirely new story, a story never known or told before, is about to unfold"; people, she goes on to argue, believe "that they are agents in a process which spells the end of the old order and brings the birth of the new world." Hannah Arendt, On Revolution (New York: Penguin, 1965), 28 and 42, respectively.
  • 64
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    • Theories of Revolution: The Third Generation
    • Jack A. Goldstone, "Theories of Revolution: The Third Generation," World Politics 23 (1980): 425-53.
    • (1980) World Politics , vol.23 , pp. 425-453
    • Goldstone, J.A.1
  • 68
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    • On the authority of the third generation, see Timothy Wickham-Crowley, Structural Theories of Revolution, in Foran, Theorizing Revolutions, 64;
    • On the authority of the third generation, see Timothy Wickham-Crowley, "Structural Theories of Revolution," in Foran, Theorizing Revolutions, 64;
  • 71
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    • The fourth generation was first posited in John Foran, Theories of Revolution Revisited: Toward a Fourth Generation? Sociological Theory 11 (1993): 1-20;
    • The "fourth generation" was first posited in John Foran, "Theories of Revolution Revisited: Toward a Fourth Generation?" Sociological Theory 11 (1993): 1-20;
  • 72
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    • Revolutions: Toward a Fourth Generation of Revolutionary Theory
    • see also
    • see also Jack A. Goldstone, "Revolutions: Toward a Fourth Generation of Revolutionary Theory," Annual Review of Political Science 4 (2001): 139-87.
    • (2001) Annual Review of Political Science , vol.4 , pp. 139-187
    • Goldstone, J.A.1
  • 73
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    • But see Foran's somewhat curious embrace of Skocpol's definition in full as my own, in Foran, Taking Power, 7.
    • But see Foran's somewhat curious embrace of Skocpol's definition "in full as my own," in Foran, Taking Power, 7.
  • 75
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    • but see also Farideh Farhi, States and Urban-Based Revolutions: Iran and Nicaragua (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1990).
    • but see also Farideh Farhi, States and Urban-Based Revolutions: Iran and Nicaragua (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1990).
  • 76
  • 77
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    • Foran and Goodwin, Revolutionary Outcomes in Iran and Nicaragua;
    • Foran and Goodwin, "Revolutionary Outcomes in Iran and Nicaragua";
  • 80
    • 64349091627 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • I have argued elsewhere that whatever the actually existing social, political, economic structures, the ideologies extant, international conditions, even the grand sweep of history - it seems clear that revolutions are fundamentally about people: created by people, led by people, fought and died for by people, and consciously and intentionally constructed by people (which is not to deny the profusion of unconscious and unintentional aspects that are inescapably part of the process). Eric Selbin, Elites, Intellectuals, and Revolutionary Leadership, in Revolutionary Movements in World History: From 1750 to the Present, ed. James DeFronzo (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2006), 254.
    • I have argued elsewhere that "whatever the actually existing social, political, economic structures, the ideologies extant, international conditions, even the grand sweep of history - it seems clear that revolutions are fundamentally about people: created by people, led by people, fought and died for by people, and consciously and intentionally constructed by people (which is not to deny the profusion of unconscious and unintentional aspects that are inescapably part of the process)." Eric Selbin, "Elites, Intellectuals, and Revolutionary Leadership," in Revolutionary Movements in World History: From 1750 to the Present, ed. James DeFronzo (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2006), 254.
  • 81
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    • See also Selbin, Revolution in the Real World: Bringing Agency Back In, in Foran, Theorizing Revolutions, 123-36;
    • See also Selbin, "Revolution in the Real World: Bringing Agency Back In," in Foran, Theorizing Revolutions, 123-36;
  • 83
    • 64349093373 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Selbin, Zapata's White Horse and Che's Beret: Theses on the Future of Revolution, in Foran, Future of Revolutions, 83-94;
    • Selbin, "Zapata's White Horse and Che's Beret: Theses on the Future of Revolution," in Foran, Future of Revolutions, 83-94;
  • 85
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    • Theory and Research in the Study of Revolutionary Personnel
    • But see, ed. Ted Gurr New York: Free Press
    • But see Mostofa Rejai, "Theory and Research in the Study of Revolutionary Personnel," in Handbook of Political Conflict: Theory and Research, ed. Ted Gurr (New York: Free Press, 1980), 100-131;
    • (1980) Handbook of Political Conflict: Theory and Research , pp. 100-131
    • Rejai, M.1
  • 89
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    • Lest any confusion lingers, a few years later she (with Goodwin) averred that revolutions are ultimately 'made' by revolutionaries but not... within the political context they themselves have chosen, to paraphrase Karl Marx. Jeff Goodwin and Theda Skocpol, Explaining Revolutions in the Contemporary Third World, Politics and Society 1 (1989): 485.
    • Lest any confusion lingers, a few years later she (with Goodwin) averred that revolutions "are ultimately 'made' by revolutionaries but not... within the political context they themselves have chosen, to paraphrase Karl Marx." Jeff Goodwin and Theda Skocpol, "Explaining Revolutions in the Contemporary Third World," Politics and Society 1 (1989): 485.
  • 95
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    • Said Amir Arjomand makes a similar point but argues that the workers were not involved. Arjomand, The Turban for the Crown: The Islamic Revolution in Iran (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989), 194.
    • Said Amir Arjomand makes a similar point but argues that the workers were not involved. Arjomand, The Turban for the Crown: The Islamic Revolution in Iran (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989), 194.
  • 97
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    • The Nonrevolutionary Peasantry of Modern Iran
    • On the revolution's broad base, see
    • On the revolution's broad base, see Farhad Kazemi and Ervand Abrahamian, "The Nonrevolutionary Peasantry of Modern Iran," Iranian Studies 11 (1978): 259-304;
    • (1978) Iranian Studies , vol.11 , pp. 259-304
    • Kazemi, F.1    Abrahamian, E.2
  • 101
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    • Dariush Zahedi similarly suggests the intelligentsia, the clerics, and the bazaaris. Zahedi, Iranian Revolution Then and Now, 40.
    • Dariush Zahedi similarly suggests "the intelligentsia, the clerics, and the bazaaris." Zahedi, Iranian Revolution Then and Now, 40.
  • 102
    • 64349104612 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Even less attention has been paid to the shortlived 1934 revolutionary commune in Asturias that was a precursor of sorts to the revolutionary aspects (mainly in Catalonia).
    • Even less attention has been paid to the shortlived 1934 revolutionary commune in Asturias that was a precursor of sorts to the revolutionary aspects (mainly in Catalonia).
  • 104
    • 64349111829 scopus 로고
    • The Guerrilla Movement in Iran
    • ed. Haleh Afshar Albany: State University of New York Press, 1985
    • Ervand Abrahamian, "The Guerrilla Movement in Iran, 1963-1977," in Iran: Revolution in Turmoil, ed. Haleh Afshar (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1985), 152.
    • (1963) Iran: Revolution in Turmoil , pp. 152
    • Abrahamian, E.1
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    • The Left and the Revolution in Iran: A Critical Analysis
    • ed. Hooshang Amirahmadi and Manoucher Parvin Boulder, CO: Westview
    • Valentine Moghadam, "The Left and the Revolution in Iran: A Critical Analysis," in Post-revolutionary Iran, ed. Hooshang Amirahmadi and Manoucher Parvin (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1988), 23-40;
    • (1988) Post-revolutionary Iran , pp. 23-40
    • Moghadam, V.1
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    • The Left and Revolution in Iran
    • Valentine Moghadam and Ali Ashtiana, "The Left and Revolution in Iran," Race and Class 33 (1991): 88.
    • (1991) Race and Class , vol.33 , pp. 88
    • Moghadam, V.1    Ashtiana, A.2
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    • Lamenting that few have defined it or been vague, he argues it is a bounded space containing a series of socially embedded networks that are mechanisms for the exchange of specific commodities (ibid., 41)
    • Lamenting that few have defined it or been vague, he argues it is "a bounded space containing a series of socially embedded networks that are mechanisms for the exchange of specific commodities" (ibid., 41)
  • 115
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    • On bazaaris, see also Keddie, Modern Iran, 226-27;
    • On bazaaris, see also Keddie, Modern Iran, 226-27;
  • 116
    • 64349116848 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • on their role in political conflicts, see also Keshavarzian, Bazaar and State in Iran, 228.
    • on their role in political conflicts, see also Keshavarzian, Bazaar and State in Iran, 228.
  • 125
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    • I thank my colleague Maria Lowe for her counsel on this subject. On the role of the mosque, see Kurzman, Unthinkable Revolution, 33-49
    • I thank my colleague Maria Lowe for her counsel on this subject. On the role of the mosque, see Kurzman, Unthinkable Revolution, 33-49.
  • 128
    • 64349090557 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • In Abrahamian's estimation, he was a major innovator, both because of his political theory and because of his religious-oriented populist strategy. Abrahamian, Iran between Two Revolutions, 479
    • In Abrahamian's estimation, he was "a major innovator ... both because of his political theory and because of his religious-oriented populist strategy." Abrahamian, Iran between Two Revolutions, 479.
  • 129
    • 64349083238 scopus 로고
    • Sexuality and the Politics of Revolution in Iran
    • On women and revolution in Iran, see, ed. Mary Ann Tetreault Columbia: University of South Carolina Press
    • On women and revolution in Iran, see Farideh Farhi, "Sexuality and the Politics of Revolution in Iran," in Women and Revolution in Africa, Asia, and the New World, ed. Mary Ann Tetreault (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1994), 252-71;
    • (1994) Women and Revolution in Africa, Asia, and the New World , pp. 252-271
    • Farhi, F.1
  • 130
    • 0007216572 scopus 로고
    • Islamic Populism, Class, and Gender in Post-revolutionary Iran
    • ed. John Foran Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press
    • Valentine Moghadam, "Islamic Populism, Class, and Gender in Post-revolutionary Iran," in A Century of Revolution: Social Movements in Iran, ed. John Foran (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1994), 189-222;
    • (1994) A Century of Revolution: Social Movements in Iran , pp. 189-222
    • Moghadam, V.1
  • 136
    • 64349114835 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • On scholars who forefront the working class, see
    • On scholars who forefront the working class, see Abrahamian, Iran between Two Revolutions, 510-18, 535;
    • Iran between Two Revolutions , vol.510 -18 , pp. 535
    • Abrahamian1
  • 138
    • 64349110931 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • On those who include it in the mix, see
    • On those who include it in the mix, see Kurzman, Unthinkable Revolution, 76-77;
    • Unthinkable Revolution , pp. 76-77
    • Kurzman1
  • 140
    • 0009384373 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • On those who largely dismiss it, see
    • On those who largely dismiss it, see Arjomand, Turban for the Crown, 107-8;
    • Turban for the Crown , pp. 107-108
    • Arjomand1
  • 143
    • 64349100100 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See also
    • See also Keddie, Modern Iran, 228, 232;
    • Modern Iran , vol.228 , pp. 232
    • Keddie1
  • 149
    • 84937316531 scopus 로고
    • The Crisis of Secular Politics and the Rise of Political Islam in Iran
    • Ali Mirsepassi-Ashtiani, "The Crisis of Secular Politics and the Rise of Political Islam in Iran," Social Text, 38 (1994): 75-76;
    • (1994) Social Text , vol.38 , pp. 75-76
    • Mirsepassi-Ashtiani, A.1
  • 151
    • 64349114596 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For a somewhat different view of Shariati's role, see Hamid Dabashi, Theology of Discontent: The Ideological Foundation of the Islamic Revolution in Iran, 2nd ed. (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 2005), 108.
    • For a somewhat different view of Shariati's role, see Hamid Dabashi, Theology of Discontent: The Ideological Foundation of the Islamic Revolution in Iran, 2nd ed. (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 2005), 108.
  • 161
    • 64349094923 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • quoted in Suroosh Irfani, Iran's Islamic Revolution: Popular Revolution or Religious Dictatorship? (London: Zed Books, 1983), 161.
    • quoted in Suroosh Irfani, Iran's Islamic Revolution: Popular Revolution or Religious Dictatorship? (London: Zed Books, 1983), 161.
  • 171
    • 64349106918 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • At the airport upon his return, Khomeini said: Our success, is the result of the unity of all the people in this country. They all follow one word, Islam, and even the religious minorities are united with Islam ibid
    • At the airport upon his return, Khomeini said: "Our success, is the result of the unity of all the people in this country. They all follow one word, 'Islam,' and even the religious minorities are united with Islam" (ibid.).
  • 176
    • 64349124612 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Dabashi goes further and inscribes Motahhari as the chief ideologue of the Islamic Revolution. Dabashi, Theology of Discontent, 147. Ayatollah Morteza Motahhari, The Nature of the Islamic Revolution, in Afshar, Iran, 215. Our revolution, Motahhari continues, will not be a true revolution until families refuse to give their children new clothes on the days of religious festivities unless they are quite certain that the families of the poor have new clothes.
    • Dabashi goes further and inscribes Motahhari as the "chief ideologue of the Islamic Revolution." Dabashi, Theology of Discontent, 147. Ayatollah Morteza Motahhari, "The Nature of the Islamic Revolution," in Afshar, Iran, 215. "Our revolution," Motahhari continues, "will not be a true revolution until families refuse to give their children new clothes on the days of religious festivities unless they are quite certain that the families of the poor have new clothes."
  • 179
  • 182
    • 64349093171 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • quoted in Irfani, Iran's Islamic Revolution, 149.
    • quoted in Irfani, Iran's Islamic Revolution, 149.
  • 189
    • 64349123765 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For an excellent précis of the 1979-82 period, see Foran and Goodwin, Revolutionary Outcomes, 214-18;
    • For an excellent précis of the 1979-82 period, see Foran and Goodwin, "Revolutionary Outcomes," 214-18;
  • 190
    • 36749020957 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • see also
    • see also Keddie, Modern Iran, 240-57.
    • Modern Iran , pp. 240-257
    • Keddie1
  • 191
    • 64349120980 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • This section draws heavily on Selbin, Stories of Revolution, 135-44;
    • This section draws heavily on Selbin, "Stories of Revolution," 135-44;
  • 192
    • 64349087582 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • see also Selbin, Revolution, Rebellion, and Resistance: The Power of Story (London: Zed Books, forthcoming).
    • see also Selbin, Revolution, Rebellion, and Resistance: The Power of Story (London: Zed Books, forthcoming).
  • 193
    • 64349123486 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • In the sense of noblesse oblige on the part of the elites
    • In the sense of noblesse oblige on the part of the elites.
  • 194
    • 64349120542 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Interestingly, this account may draw on early Persian versions of Arabian tales
    • Interestingly, this account may draw on early Persian versions of Arabian tales.
  • 195
    • 64349117291 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Familiar faces are not absent: France and Russia are here, albeit more as moments lost (such as Kronshtadt or Ukraine in the latter); Mexico's untold lost moments are cataloged.
    • Familiar faces are not absent: France and Russia are here, albeit more as moments lost (such as Kronshtadt or Ukraine in the latter); Mexico's untold lost moments are cataloged.
  • 199
    • 64349114371 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Liberation theologians in Central America and elsewhere might disagree
    • McDaniel, Autocracy, Modernization, and Revolution, 3. Liberation theologians in Central America and elsewhere might disagree.
    • Autocracy, Modernization, and Revolution , pp. 3
    • McDaniel1
  • 200
    • 64349084140 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Moaddel offers a harsh but succinct formulation of this: Marx may have been correct when he stated that the French Revolution was a gigantic broom that swept away all the medieval rubbish of the Middle Ages.... the gigantic broom of the Iranian Revolution ... swept all the medieval rubbish back in. Moaddel, Class, Politics, and Ideology, 264.
    • Moaddel offers a harsh but succinct formulation of this: "Marx may have been correct when he stated that the French Revolution was a gigantic broom that swept away all the medieval rubbish of the Middle Ages.... the gigantic broom of the Iranian Revolution ... swept all the medieval rubbish back in." Moaddel, Class, Politics, and Ideology, 264.
  • 201
    • 64349118368 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Farideh Farhi, The Democratic Turn: New Ways of Understanding Revolution, in Foran, Future of Revolutions, 30-41.
    • Farideh Farhi, "The Democratic Turn: New Ways of Understanding Revolution," in Foran, Future of Revolutions, 30-41.
  • 202
    • 64349115951 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Farhi argues that the struggle over the meaning and the shape of power emerging from the country's volcanic revolution of more than twenty years ago is still in process. The democratic aspirations that were reflected in the multi-class coalition against a dictatorship and a monarchy were... immediately stunted in the name of Islam and war (ibid., 36, emphasis in original).
    • Farhi argues that "the struggle over the meaning and the shape of power emerging from the country's volcanic revolution of more than twenty years ago is still in process. The democratic aspirations that were reflected in the multi-class coalition against a dictatorship and a monarchy were... immediately stunted in the name of Islam and war" (ibid., 36, emphasis in original).
  • 204
    • 64349113312 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Selbin, quoted in Foran, How Might Revolutions, 136.
    • Selbin, quoted in Foran, "How Might Revolutions," 136.
  • 205
    • 70349610999 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Bolivia: A Twenty-First-Century Revolution
    • Adolfo Gilly, "Bolivia: A Twenty-First-Century Revolution," Socialism and Democracy 19 (2005): 51.
    • (2005) Socialism and Democracy , vol.19 , pp. 51
    • Gilly, A.1


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