The rise and fall of western Europe's democratic age, 1945-1973

Contemporary European History

Volumn 13, Issue 1, 2004, Pages 67-88

  Conway, Martin ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 60950350316     PISSN: 09607773     EISSN: 14692171     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0960777303001474     Document Type: Review

References (146)

1. See, for example, Mark Mazower, Dark Continent: Europe's Twentieth Century (London: Allen Lane, 1998)
2. Richard Vinen, A History in Fragments. Europe in the Twentieth Century (London: Little, Brown and Company, 2000)
3. 'Legacies of Exile: The Exile Governments in London and the Politics of Post-War Europe', in Martin Conway and José Gotovitch, eds., Europe in Exile: Refugee Communities in Great Britain, 1940-1945 (New York and Oxford: Berghahn, 2001), 255-74
4. 'Democracy in Postwar Western Europe. The Triumph of a Political Model', European History Quarterly, 32 (2002), 59-84
5. 'The Age of Christian Democracy. The Frontiers of Success and Failure', in Tom Kselman and Joseph Buttigieg, eds., Christian Democracy: Historical Legacies and Comparative Perspectives (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 2003), 43-67
6. 'The Greek Civil War: Greek Exceptionalism or Mirror of a European CivilWar?', in Philip Carabott and Thanasis Sfikas, eds., Domestic and International Aspects of the Greek Civil War (forthcoming, 2004)
7. and Eric Hobsbawm, Age of Extremes. The Short Twentieth Century 1914-1991 (London: Michael Joseph, 1994) to post-1945 Europe
8. Richard Kuisel, Seducing the French: The Dilemma of Americanization (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993), 38
9. See, for example, Anne Deighton, The Impossible Peace. Britain, the Division of Germany and the Origins of the Cold War (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990)
10. William Hitchcock, France Restored: Cold War Diplomacy and the Quest for Leadership in Europe, 1944-1954 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1998), 7-9
11. For an interesting contemporary reflection on this phenomenon, see Theodore White, Fire in the Ashes. Europe in Mid-century (London: Cassell, 1954), 19-27
12. Re Belgium in 1950, see Jules Gérard-Libois and José Gotovitch, Léopold III. De l'an 40 à l'effacement (Brussels: Pol-His, 1991)
13. and Paul Theunissen, 1950, Le dénouement de la question royale (Brussels: Editions Complexe, 1986)
14. These themes are implicit in the essays contained in Istvan Deak, Jan Gross and Tony Judt, eds., The Politics of Retribution in Europe: World War II and its Aftermath (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000)
15. Paul Ginsborg, A History of Contemporary Italy: Society and Politics 1943-1988 (London: Penguin, 1990)
16. Nick Crafts and Gianni Toniolo similarly adopt the terminus year of 1973 in their study of postwar economic growth: Nick Crafts and Gianni Toniolo, 'Postwar growth: an overview', in Nick Crafts and Gianni Toniolo, eds., Economic Growth in Europe since 1945 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 7
17. Carole Fink and Philipp Gassert, eds., 1968: The World Transformed (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998)
18. Kristin Ross, May '68 and its Afterlives (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002)
19. This is of course to disagree with what one might term the maximalist account of the changes which occurred during the 1960s as presented in Arthur Marwick, The Sixties: Cultural Revolution in Britain, France, Italy and the United States c.1958-c.1974 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998)
20. See the list provided in Dirk Berg-Schlosser and Jeremy Mitchell, 'Conclusions and Perspectives', in Dirk Berg-Schlosser and Jeremy Mitchell, eds., Conditions of Democracy in Europe 1919-39. Systematic Case Studies (Basingstoke and New York: Macmillan, 2000), 464-5
21. Carl Schorske, 'Politics in a New Key: An Austrian Trio', Journal of Modern History, 39 (1967), 343-86
22. Michael Bentley, Politics without Democracy 1815-1914 (London: Fontana, 1984)
23. Roderick Kedward, Resistance in Vichy France. A Study of the Ideas and Motivation in the Southern Zone 1940-1942 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1978)
24. and In Search of the Maquis. Rural Resistance in Southern France 1942-1944 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993)
25. Writing about the Stunde Null rarely fails to convey an impression of regret that a more radical rupture was not achieved in 1945. See, for example, Rebecca Boehling, A Question of Priorities. Democratic Reform and Recovery in Postwar Germany (New York and Oxford: Berghahn, 1996)
26. See the perceptive comments in Els Witte, 'Tussen restauratie en vernieuwing. Een introductie op de Belgische politieke evolutie tussen 1944 en 1950', in Els Witte, Jean-Claude Burgelman and Patrick Stouthuysen, eds., Tussen restauratie en vernieuwing (Brussels: VUB Press, 1990), 51-2
27. Luc Huyse and Steven Dhondt, Onverwerkt verleden. Collaboratie en repressie in België, 1942-1952 (Leuven: Kritak, 1991)
28. An excellent exploration of the postwar instrumentalisation of memory in western Europe is provided in Pieter Lagrou, Patriotic Memory and National Recovery. The Legacy of Nazi Occupation in Belgium, France and the Netherlands 1945-1965 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000)
29. See also his 'Victims of Genocide and National Memory: Belgium, France and the Netherlands, 1945-1965', Past and Present, 154 (1997), 181-222
30. Paul Addison, The Road to 1945: British Politics and the Second World War (London and New York: Quartet, 1977)
31. For a critique of Addison's argument, see Kevin Jeffreys, 'British Politics and Social Policy during the Second World War', The Historical Journal, 30 (1987), 123-44
32. Characteristic examples of these approaches are Stefan Berger, 'European Labour Movements and the European Working Class in Comparative Perspective', in Stefan Berger and David Broughton, eds., The Western European Labour Movement and the Working Class in the Twentieth Century (Oxford and Washington, DC: Berg, 1995), 247
33. and Tom Behan, The Long-Awaited Moment. The Working Class and the Italian Communist Party in Milan, 1943-1948 (New York: Peter Lang, 1997)
34. Some of the best work on the working class has been done on central Europe in the early communist period. See, for example, Mark Pittaway, 'The Reproduction of Hierarchy: Skill,Working-Class Culture and the State in early Socialist Hungary', Journal of Modern History, 74 (2002), 737-69
35. Padraic Kenney, Rebuilding Poland: Workers and Communists 1945-1950 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1997)
36. Rik Hemmerijckx, 'La CMB dans la clandestinité: un syndicat entre la contestation et l'intégration', in Chauffés au rouge. Histoires de la Centrale des Metallurgistes de Belgique (Gent: CMB-AMSAB, 1990), 363-420
37. Dirk Luyten and Rik Hemmerijckx, 'Belgian Labour in World War II: Strategies of Survival, Organisations and Labour Relations', European Review of History, 7 (2000), 207-27
38. See also Lynne Taylor, Between Resistance and Collaboration. Popular Protest in Northern France, 1940-45 (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 2000)
39. Dirk Luyten, Sociaal-economisch overleg in België sedert 1918 (Brussels: VUB Press, 1995), 97-156
40. Rik Hemmerijckx, 'De socialistische vakbeweging en het sociaal pact', in Dirk Luyten and Guy Vanthemsche, eds., Het Sociaal Pact van 1944 (Brussels: VUB Press, 1995), 227-45
41. See the illuminating case studies provided for Germany in Boehling, Question of Priorities
42. Robert Gildea, Marianne in Chains. In Search of the German Occupation, 1940-1945 (London: Macmillan, 2002), 421
43. Roderick Kedward, 'Introduction', in Roderick Kedward, and Nancy Wood, eds., The Liberation of France: Image and Event (Oxford and Herndon, VA: Berg, 1995), 1-9
44. Martin Conway, 'Justice in Postwar Belgium: Popular Pressures and Political Realities' in Deak, Gross and Judt, Politics of Retribution, 133-56
45. Megan Koreman, The Expectation of Justice. France 1944-46 (Durham, NC, and London: Duke University Press, 1999), 260
46. R. Damiani and J.-P. Thuillier, 'Introduction à l'histoire orale de la region du Nord (1936-1946)', Revue du Nord, 57 (1975), 315, 326-8
47. E.g. Yves Le Maner, 'Town Councils of the Nord and Pas-de-Calais region: local power, French power, German power', in Tim Kirk and Anthony McElligott, eds., Opposing Fascism. Community, Authority and Resistance in Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 97-119
48. Koreman, Expectation of Justice, 230-43
49. Mencherini, Guerre froide, 206 and 213
50. Janet Teissier du Cros, Divided Loyalties: A Scotswoman in occupied France (republished Edinburgh: Canongate, 1992)
51. Italo Calvino, The Path to the Spiders' Nests (London: Jonathan Cape, 1998)
52. and Elsa Morante, History: A Novel (London: Penguin, 2001)
53. Gildea, Marianne in Chains, exemplifies this trend
54. Mark Mazower makes much of Alessandro Pizzorno's 1954 description of 'the individualistic mobilization of Europe': Mazower, Dark Continent, 306-13
55. Hanna Diamond, 'Women's Aspirations 1943-47: an Oral Enquiry in Toulouse', in Kedward and Wood, Liberation of France, 93
56. See also Barbara Marshall, 'The Democratization of Local Politics in the British Zone of Germany: Hanover 1945-47', Journal of Contemporary History, 21 (1986), 413-51
57. See the perceptive reflections in Peter Brandt, 'Germany after 1945: Revolution by Defeat?', in Reinhard Rürup, ed., The Problem of Revolution in Germany, 1789-1989 (Oxford and New York: Berg, 2000), 141-5
58. Julian Jackson, France. The Dark Years 1940-1944 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), 102-11
59. Maria Quine, Italy's Social Revolution. Charity and Welfare from Liberalism to Fascism (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2002), 128
60. Christopher Duggan, 'Italy in the Cold War Years and the Legacy of Fascism', in Christopher Duggan and Christopher Wagstaff, eds., Italy in the Cold War. Politics, Culture and Society, 1948-58 (Oxford and Washington, DC: Berg, 1995), 3-6
61. Jose Harris, William Beveridge: A Biography (Revised edition Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997), 480-95
62. and 'Some Aspects of Social Policy in Britain during the Second World War', in Wolfgang Mommsen, ed., The Emergence of the Welfare State in Britain and Germany 1850-1950 (London: Croom Helm, 1981), 259-60
63. Philippe Mioche, Le plan Monnet. Genèse et élaboration 1941-1947 (Paris: Publications de la Sorbonne, 1987)
64. Adam Steinhouse, Workers' Participation in Post-Liberation France (Lanham, MD, and Oxford: Lexington, 2001)
65. Peter Flora and Arnold Heidenheimer, 'The Historical Core and Changing Boundaries of the Welfare State', in Peter Flora and Arnold Heidenheimer, eds., The Development of Welfare States in Europe and America (New Brunswick and London: Transaction, 1981), 21-8
66. Edward Ross Dickinson, The Politics of German Child Welfare from the Empire to the Federal Republic (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1996), 245-51
67. Conway, 'Legacies of Exile', 264-5
68. Paul Dutton, Origins of the French Welfare State. The Struggle for Social Reform in France 1914-1947 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 208-24
69. Guy Vanthemsche, La sécurité sociale. Les origines du système belge (Brussels: De Boeck Université, 1994), 69-74
70. See, for example, Hitchcock, France Restored, 1-2
71. Alexander Groth, Democracies against Hitler. Myth, Reality and Prologue (Aldershot: Ashgate, 1999), 352
72. John Coutouvidis and Jaime Reynolds, Poland 1939-1947 (Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1986)
73. For a stimulating example of such an approach to the history of interwar Europe, see Gregory Luebbert, Liberalism, Fascism or Social Democracy. Social Classes and the Political Origins of Regimes in Interwar Europe (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991)
74. Robert Wegs and Robert Ladrech, Europe since 1945: A Concise History, 4th edn (New York: St. Martin's Press, and Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1996), 158-80, is a good example of such an approach
75. Hartmut Kaelble, A Social History of Western Europe 1880-1980 (Dublin: Gill & Macmillan, 1989), 39-59. There were of course manifold differences between the west European states
76. Karl Schmitt, Konfession und Wahlverhalten in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland (Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, 1989)
77. Jaak Billiet, 'Les électeurs du PSC et du CVP', in Wilfried Dewachter et al., eds., Un parti dans l'histoire 1945-1995. 50 ans d'action du Parti Social Chrétien (Louvain-la-Neuve: Editions Duculot, 1996), 297-325
78. John Whyte, Catholics in Western Democracies. A Study in Political Behaviour (Dublin: Gill & Macmillan, 1981)
79. In Scandinavia, the red - green alliances of socialists and small farmers that emerged in the mid-1930s remained the dominant political reality. See, for example, Sheri Berman, The Social Democratic Moment: Ideas and Politics in the Making of Interwar Europe (Cambridge, MA, and London: Harvard University Press, 1998), 170-4
80. Alice Bourneuf, Norway. The Planned Revival (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1958), 17-22
81. Valmy Féaux, Cinq semaines de lutte sociale. La grève de l'hiver 1960-1961 (Brussels: Institut de sociologie de l'Université Libre de Bruxelles, 1963)
82. Ginsborg, Contemporary Italy, 309-22
83. Jean-Pierre Rioux, The Fourth Republic 1944-1958 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 218-23
84. Anthony Nicholls, The Bonn Republic. West German Democracy, 1945-1990 (London and New York: Longman, 1997), 107-8
85. Leen Van Molle, 'Le monde agricole belge et la concurrence européenne', in Michel Dumoulin, ed., La Belgique et les débuts de la construction européenne (Louvain-la-Neuve: Ciaco, 1987), 119-43
86. Gilbert Noël, France, Allemagne et 'Europe verte' (Berne and New York: P. Lang, 1995)
87. On the historic victory of the small nuclear family within western Europe see Kaelble, Social History, 15
88. Eric Hobsbawm, Interesting Times. A Twentieth Century Life (London: Allen Lane, 2002), 222-32
89. The social history of the postwar bourgeoisie has yet to attract a substantial historiography. See, however, Jürgen Kocka, 'The Middle Classes in Europe', republished in Jürgen Kocka, Industrial Culture and Bourgeois Society. Business, Labour and Bureaucracy in Modern Germany (New York and Oxford: Berghahn, 1999), 248-50
90. Serge Berstein, La France de l'expansion, I, La République gaullienne 1958-1969 (Paris: Seuil, 1989), 207-10
91. Ewen Green, Ideologies of Conservatism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), 12-13
92. See also Tom Buchanan and Martin Conway, eds., Political Catholicism in Europe 1918-1965 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996)
93. Emiel Lamberts, ed., Christian Democracy in the European Union (Leuven: Leuven University Press, 1997)
94. and Michael Gehler, Wolfram Kaiser and Helmut Wohnout, eds., Christdemokratie in Europa im 20. Jahrhundert (Vienna: Bohlau, 2001)
95. Michael Fogarty remains the classic statement of this position: Michael Fogarty, Christian Democracy in Europe 1820-1953 (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1957)
96. But it is also evident in much more recent studies such as Stathis Kalyvas, The Rise of Christian Democracy in Europe (Ithaca, NY, and London: Cornell University Press, 1996)
97. Noel Cary, The Path to Christian Democracy. German Catholics and the Party System from Windthorst to Adenauer (Cambridge, MA, and London: Harvard University Press, 1996)
98. and Jean-Dominique Durand, 'La mémoire de la démocratie chrétienne en 1945. Antécédents, expériences et combats', in Lamberts, Christian Democracy, 13-26
99. Martin Conway, 'Left Catholicism in Europe in the 1940s. Elements of an Interpretation', in Gerd-Rainer Horn and Emmanuel Gerard, eds., Left Catholicism 1943-1955. Catholics and Society in Western Europe at the Point of Liberation (Leuven: Leuven University Press, 2001), 270-8
100. Vesna Drapac, War and Religion. Catholics in the Churches of Occupied Paris (Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press, 1998)
101. Fabrice Maerten, Frans Selleslagh and Mark Van den Wijngaert, eds., Entre la peste et le choléra. Vie et attitudes des catholiques sous l'occupation (Brussels and Gerpinnes: Quorum, 1999)
102. Jean-Dominique Durand, L'église catholique dans la crise de l'Italie (1943-1948) (Rome: Ecole Française de Rome, 1991)
103. Werner Blessing, '"Deutschland in Not,Wir im Glauben ... ". Kirche und Kirchenvolk in einer katholischen Region, 1933-1949', in Martin Broszat, Klaus-Dietmar Henke and Hans Woller, eds., Von Stalingrad zur Währungsreform. Zur Sozialgeschichte des Umbruchs in Deutschland (Munich: Oldenbourg, 1988), 3-111
104. Margaret Anderson, 'The Limits of Secularization. On the Problem of the Catholic Revival in Nineteenth-century Germany', The Historical Journal, 38 (1995), 670
105. See the case studies in Urs Altermatt, 'Die Stimmlungslage im politischen Katholizismus der Schweiz von 1945: "Wir lassen uns nicht ausmanövrieren"', in Victor Conzemius, Martin Greschat and Hermann Kocher, eds., Die Zeit nach 1945 als Thema kirchlicher Zeitgeschichte (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1988), 72-96
106. Mark Van den Wijngaert, Onstaan en stichting van de CVP-PSC. De lange weg naar het kerstprogramma (Brussels: De Nederlandse Boekhandel, 1976)
107. John Pollard, 'Italy', in Buchanan and Conway, Political Catholicism, 84-8
108. and David Allen Harvey, Constructing Class and Nationality in Alsace 1830-1945 (Dekalb, IL: Northern Illinois University Press, 2001), 201-2
109. E.g. Maria Mitchell, 'Materialism and Secularism: CDU Politicians and National Socialism, 1945-1949', Journal of Modern History, 67 (1995), 278-308
110. E.g. Patrick Pasture, 'Entre église et citoyen', in Un parti dans l'histoire, 265-95
111. Antonio Parisella, 'La base sociale della Democrazia Cristiana italiana. Elettorato, iscritti e organizzazione', in Lamberts, Christian Democracy, 189-209
112. Wolfgang Müller, Fritz Plasser and Peter Ulram, 'Wähler und Mitgleider der ÖVP 1945-1994', in Robert Kreichbaumer and Franz Schausberger, eds., Volkspartei: Anspruch und Realität (Vienna: Bohlau, 1995), 163-200
113. Herman Bakvis, Catholic Power in the Netherlands (Kingston, Ontario: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1981)
114. Geoffrey Pridham, Christian Democracy in Western Germany (London: Croom Helm, 1977)
115. On the differentness of the MRP as a more political and intellectual party, see Pierre Letamendia, Le mouvement républicain populaire. Histoire d'un grand parti français (Paris: Beauchesne, 1995)
116. and Carolyn Warner, 'Getting Out the Vote with Patronage and Threat: The French and Italian Christian Democratic Parties, 1944-1958', Journal of Interdisciplinary History, 28 (1998), 553-82
117. Bruce Desmond Graham, Choice and Democratic Order. The French Socialist Party, 1937-1950 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 271-6, 296-7
118. Sarah Timperman, '1945-1954: le PSB s'ouvre aux classes moyennes', Revue belge d'histoire contemporaine, 28 (1998), 445-98
119. Diane Parness, The SPD and the Challenge of Mass Politics. The Dilemma of the German Volkspartei (Boulder: Westview, 1991), 49-53
120. Vinen, A History in Fragments, 372-5
121. Larry Siedentop, Democracy in Europe (London: Allen Lane, 2000) provides an interesting but somewhat ahistorical approach to this phenomenon. See, for example, his misplaced determination to locate the origins of the European Union's bureaucratic culture in a distinctively French model of the state: 102-21
122. Kurt Richard Luther, 'From Accommodation to Competition: The "Normalization" of the Second Republic's Party System', in Kurt Richard Luther and Peter Pulzer, eds., Austria 1945-1995. Fifty Years of the Second Republic (Aldershot: Ashgate, 1998), 126-30
123. Liesbet Hooghe, A Leap in the Dark. Nationalist Conflict and Federal Reform in Belgium (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1991) provides a succinct introduction to political-science perspectives
124. Patrick Pasture, 'The April 1944 "Social Pact" in Belgium and its Significance for the Post-war Welfare State', Journal of Contemporary History, 28 (1993), 702-10
125. Hans Blom, 'The Second World War and Dutch Society: Continuity and Change', in Alastair C. Duke and Coenraad A. Tamse, eds., Britain and the Netherlands, Vol. 6 (1977), 228-48
126. Melanie Sully, A Contemporary History of Austria (London and New York: Routledge, 1990), 6-7
127. Miranda Pollard, Reign of Virtue. Mobilizing Gender in Vichy France (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1998), 200-3
128. Hanna Diamond, Women and the Second World War in France, 1939-48. Choices and Constraints (Harlow: Longman, 1999), 178-203
129. The issue of head shaving has been the focus of many studies in recent years. See, for example, Fabrice Virgili, La France 'virile'. Des femmes tondues à la Libération (Paris: Payot & Rivages, 2000)
130. and Claire Duchen, 'Opening Pandora's Box: The Case of the femmes tondues', in Martyn Cornick and Ceri Crossley, eds., Problems in French History (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2000), 213-32
131. In contrast, the study of masculinity in liberation Europe remains in its infancy. See, nevertheless, the observations in Michael Kelly, 'The Reconstruction of Masculinity at the Liberation', in Kedward and Wood, Liberation of France, 117-28
132. Luc Capdevila, 'The Quest for Masculinity in a Defeated France, 1940-1945', Contemporary European History, 10 (2001), 423-45
133. and Elizabeth Heineman, 'The Hour of the Woman: Memories of Germany's "Crisis Years" and West German National Identity', American Historical Review, 101 (1996), 354-95
134. Sylvie Chaperon, '"Feminism is dead. Long live Feminism!" The Women's Movement in France at the Liberation, 1944-1946'
135. and Anna Rossi-Doria, 'Italian Women enter Politics', in Claire Duchen and Irene Bandhauer-Schöffmann, eds., When the War was Over. Women, War and Peace in Europe, 1940-1956 (London and New York: Leicester University Press, 2000), 146-60 and 89-102
136. Siân Reynolds, 'Lateness, Amnesia and Unfinished Business. Gender and Democracy in Twentieth-Century Europe', European History Quarterly, 32 (2002), 91-4
137. This applied of course to the particularly controversial issue of benefits paid to war widows. See, for example, Elizabeth Heineman, 'Gender, Public Policy and Memory: Waiting Wives and War Widows in the Postwar Germanys', in Alon Confino and Peter Fritzsche, eds., The Work of Memory. New Directions in the Study of German Society and Culture (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2002), 220-25
138. Erica Carter, How German is She? Postwar German Reconstruction and the Consuming Woman (Michigan: University of Michigan Press, 1997)
139. Victoria De Grazia, 'Mass Culture and Sovereignty: The American Challenge to European Cinemas, 1920-1960', Journal of Modern History, 61 (1989), 84-6
140. Philippe Chenaux, Une Europe vaticane? (Brussels: Editions Ciaco, 1990)
141. Michael Gehler and Wolfram Kaiser, 'Transnationalism and Early European Integration: The Nouvelles Equipes Internationales and the Geneva Circle 1947-1957', The Historical Journal, 44 (2001), 773-98
142. Alan Milward, The European Rescue of the Nation-State (London: Routledge, 1992)
143. For a rather extreme example of this new-found scepticism about the emergence of a European polity, see Mary Fulbrook, 'Conclusion', in Mary Fulbrook, ed., Europe since 1945 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), 278: 'What is perhaps distinctive about the latter half of the twentieth century is that, for many Europeans, the existence of sovereign nation states seemed so utterly natural, so utterly taken for granted, that wider patterns of interdependence and interaction over centuries almost disappeared from their mental horizons.'
144. Richard Vinen, France 1934-1970 (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1996), 100-110, provides an admirably succinct analysis of the problems of the Fourth Republic
145. Geoff Eley, Forging Democracy. The History of the Left in Europe, 1850-2000 (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2002)
146. Tom Buchanan and I have explored these issues in Tom Buchanan and Martin Conway, 'The Politics of Democracy in Twentieth-Century Europe: Introduction', European History Quarterly, 32 (2002), 9-12