Neurosurgical strategies for Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome

Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment

Volumn 4, Issue 6, 2008, Pages 1111-1128

  Mukhida, Karim ^a,b   Bishop, Matthew ^b   Hong, Murray ^b   Mendez, Ivar ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO   (Canada)

^b DALHOUSIE UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

Author keywords

Creep brain stimulation; Neurosurgery; Thalamus; Tourette's syndrome

Indexed keywords

NEUROTRANSMITTER;

BRAIN DAMAGE; BRAIN DEPTH STIMULATION; BRAIN SURGERY; CINGULECTOMY; CLINICAL FEATURE; DISEASE CLASSIFICATION; ELECTROSTIMULATION THERAPY; GILLES DE LA TOURETTE SYNDROME; HUMAN; NEUROIMAGING; NEUROPATHOLOGY; NEUROSURGERY; NEUROTRANSMITTER RELEASE; NONHUMAN; PATHOLOGICAL ANATOMY; REVIEW; SURGICAL ANATOMY; SURGICAL TECHNIQUE; TEMPORAL LOBECTOMY; THALAMOTOMY; TREATMENT RESPONSE;

EID: 60249102841     PISSN: 11766328     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2147/ndt.s4160     Document Type: Review

References (155)

1. Ackermans L, Temel Y, Bauer NJC, et al. 2007. Vertical gaze palsy after thalamic stimulation for Tourette syndrome: case report. Neurosurgery, 61:E1100.
2. Ackermans L, Temel Y, Cath D, et al. 2006. Deep brain stimulation for Tourette's syndrome: two targets? Mov Disord, 21:709-13.
3. Albin RL, Koeppe RA, Bohnen NI, et al. 2003. Increased ventral striatal monoaminergic innervations in Tourette syndrome. Neurology, 61:310-5.
4. Alex KD, Yavanian GJ, McFarlane HG, et al. 2005. Modulation of dopamine release by striatal 5-HT2C receptors. Synapse, 55:242-51.
5. Alexander GE, DeLong MR. 1985. Microstimulation of the primate striatum. II. Somatotopic organization of striatal microexcitable zones and their relation to neuronal response properties. J Neurophysiol, 53:1417-30.
6. Anandan S, Wigg CL, Thomas CR, et al. 2004. Psychosurgery for self-injurious behaviour in Tourette's disorder. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol, 14:531-8.
7. Anderson G, Pollak E, Chatterjee D, et al. 1992. Postmortem analysis of subcortical monamines and amino acids in Tourette syndrome. Adv Neurol, 58:123-33.
8. Appleby BS, Duggan PS, Regenberg A, et al. 2007. Psychiatric and neuropsychiatric adverse events associated with deep brain stimulation: a meta-analysis of ten years' experience. Mov Disord, 22:1722-8.
9. Asam U, Karrass W. 1981. Gilles de la Tourette syndrome and psychosurgery. Acta Paedopsychiatr, 47:39-48.
10. Babel TB, Warnke PC, Ostertag CB. Immediate and long term outcome after infrathalamic and thalamic lesioning for intractable Tourette's syndrome. 2001. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry, 70:666-71.
11. Baer L, Rauch SL, Jenike MA, et al. 1994. Cingulotomy in a case of concomitant obsessive-compulsive disorder and Tourette's syndrome. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 51:73-4.
12. Baker EFW. 1962. Gilles de la Tourette syndrome treated by bimedial frontal leucotomy. Can Med Assoc J, 86:746-7.
13. Ballantine HT, Boukoms, AJ, Thomas EK, et al. 1987. Treatment of psychiatric illness by stereotactic cingulotomy. Biol Psychiatry, 22:807-9.
14. Balthasar K. 1957. Über das anatomische Substrat de generalisierten Tic-Krankheit (maladie des tics, Gilles de la Tourette): Entwicklungshemmung des corpus striatum. Archiv für Psychiatrie und Nervenkrankheiten, 195:531-49.
15. Baym CL, Corbett BA, Wright SB, et al. 2008. Neural correlates of tic severity and cognitive control in children with Tourette syndrome. Brain, 131:165-79.
16. Beard GM. 1880-1881. Experiments with the 'jumpers' or 'jumping Frenchmen' of Maine. Pop Sci Month (NY), 18:170.
17. Beckers W. 1973. Gilles de la Tourette's disease based on five own observations. Arch Psychiatr Nervenkr, 217:169-86.
18. Benabid AL, Pollak P, Louveau A, et al. 1987. Combined (thalamotomy and stimulation) stereotactic surgery of the VIM thalamic nucleus for bilateral Parkinson disease. Appl Neurophysiol, 50:344-6.
19. Benabid AL. 2007. What the future holds for deep brain stimulation. Expert Rev Med Devices, 4:895-903.
20. Benazzouz A, Hallet M. 2000. Mechanism of action of deep brain stimulation. Neurology, 55(Suppl 6):S13-16.
21. Beric A, Kelly PJ, Rezai A, et al. 2001. Complications of deep brain stimulation surgery. Stereotact Funct Neurosurg, 77:73-8.
22. Binder DK, Rau GM, Starr PA. 2005. Risk factors for hemorrhage during microelectrode-guided deep brain stimulator implantation for movement disorders. Neurosurgery, 56:722-32.
23. Bin-Mahfoodh M, Hamani C, Sime E, et al. 2003. Longevity of batteries in internal pulse generators used for deep brain stimulation. Stereotact Funct Neurosurg, 80:56-60.
24. Bloch MH, Leckman JF, Zhu H, et al. 2005. Caudate volumes in childhood predict symptom severity in adults of Tourette syndrome. Neurology, 65:1253-8.
25. Blomstedt P, Hariz MI. 2006. Are complications less common in deep brain stimulation than in ablative procedures for movement disorders? Stereotact Funct Neurosurg, 84:72-81.
26. Bohlhalter S, Goldfine A, Matteson S, et al. 2006. Neural correlates of tic generation in Tourette syndrome: an event-related functional MRI study. Brain, 129:2029-37.
27. Bruun RD, Budman CL. 1992. The natural history of Tourette syndrome. Adv Neurol 58:1-6.
28. Butler IJ, Koslow SH, Seifert WE Jr, et al. 1979. Biogenic amine metabolism in Tourette syndrome. Ann Neurol, 27:443-6.
29. Campbell KM, Veldman MB, McGrath MJ, et al. 2000. TS+OCD-like neuropotentiated mice are supersensitive to seizure induction. Neuroreport, 11:2335-8.
30. Cappabianca P, Spaziante R, Carrabs G, et al. 1987. Surgical stereotactic treatment for Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome. Acta Neurol (Napoli), 9:273-80.
31. Carta M, Carlsson T, Kirik D, et al. 2007. Dopamine released from 5-HT terminal is the cause of L-DOPA-induced dyskinesias in parkinsonian rats. Brain, 130:1819-33.
32. Castellanos FX, Fine EJ, Kaysen DL, et al. 1996. Sensorimotor gating in boys with Tourette's Syndrome and ADHD: preliminary results. Biol Psychiatry, 39:33-41.
33. Chang J-Y, Shi L-H, Luo F, et al. 2008. Studies of the neural mechanisms of deep brain stimulation in rodent models of Parkinson's disease. Neurosci Biobehav Rev, 32:352-66.
34. Cheon KA, Ryu YH, Namkoong K, et al. 2004. Dopamine transporter density of the basal ganglia assessed with [123I]IPT-SPECT in drug-naive children with Tourette's disorder. Psychiatry Res, 130:85-95.
35. Comings DE. 1990. Blood serotonin and tryptophan in Tourette syndrome. Am J Med Genet, 36:418-30.
36. Como P. 1995. Obsessive-compulsive disorder in Tourette's syndrome. Adv Neurol 65:281-91.
37. Constantoyannis C, Berk C, Honey CR, et al. 2005. Reducing hardware-related complications of deep brain stimulation. Can J Neurol Sci, 32:194-200.
38. de Divitiis E, D'Errico A, Cerillo A. 1977. Stereotactic surgery in Gilles de la Tourette syndrome. Acta Neurochir (Wien), Suppl 24:73.
39. Demirkiran M, Jankovic J. 1995. Paroxysmal dyskinesias: clinical features and classification. Ann Neurol 38:571-9.
40. Denkla BM, Harris EL, Aylward EH, et al. 1991. Executive function and volume of the basal ganglia in children in with Tourette syndrome and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Ann Neurol, 30:476.
41. DeWulf A, van Bogaert L. 1941. Etudes anatomo-cliniques des syndromes hypercinétiques complexes, III. Une observation anatomo-clinique de maladie des tios (Gilles de la Tourette). Monatsschrift für Psychiatrie und Neurologie, 104:53-61.
42. Diederich NJ, Kalteis K, Stamenkovic M, et al. 2005. Efficient internal pallidal stimulation in Gilles de la Tourette Syndrome: a case report. Mov Disord, 20:1496-520.
43. Diethelm O. 1939. An historical review of somatic therapy in psychiatry. Am J Psychiatry, 95:1165-79.
44. Dostrovsky JO, Lozano AM. 2002. Mechanisms of deep brain stimulation. Mov Disord, 17(Suppl 1):S63-S68.
45. Eidelberg D, Moeller JR, Antonini A, et al. 1997. The metabolic anatomy of Tourette's syndrome. Neurology, 48:927-34.
46. Ernst M, Zametkin AJ, Jons PH, et al. 1999. High presynaptic dopaminergic activity in children with Tourette's disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 38:86-94.
47. Favre J, Taha JM, Burchiel KJ. 2002. An analysis of the respective risks of hematoma formation in 361 consecutive morphological and functional stereotactic procedures. Neurosurgery, 50:48-57.
48. Filali M, Hutchison WD, Palter VN, et al. 2004. Stimulation-induced inhibition of neuronal firing in human subthalamic nucleus. Exp Brain Res, 156:274-81.
49. Fins JJ. 2003. From psychosurgery to neuromodulation and palliation: history's lessons for the ethical conduct and regulation of neuropsychiatric research. Neurosurg Clin N Am, 14:303-19.
50. Flaherty AW, Williams ZM, Amirnovin R, et al. 2005. Deep brain stimulation of the anterior internal capsule for the treatment of Tourette syndrome: technical case report. Neurosurgery, ONS4:E403.
51. Frankel M, Cummings J, Robertson M, et al. 1986. Obsessions and compulsions in Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome. Adv Neurol 36:378-82.
52. Freudenberg F, Dieckmann M, Winter S, et al. 2007. Selective breeding for deficient sensorimotor gating is accompanied by increased perseveration in rats. Neuroscience, 148:612-22.
53. Frey KA, Albin RL. Neuroimaging of Tourette syndrome. 2006. J Child Neurol, 21:672-7.
54. Fukada M, Mentis MJ, Ma Y, et al. 2001. Networks mediating the clinical effects of pallidal brain stimulation for Parkinson's disease: a PET study of resting-state glucose metabolism. Brain, 124:1601-9.
55. Gallagher CL, Garell PC, Montgomery Jr EB. 2006. Hemi tics and deep brain stimulation. Neurology, 66:E12.
56. Garcia L, D'Alessandro G, Bioulac B, et al. 2005. High-frequency stimulation in Parkinson's disease: more or less? Trends Neurosci, 22:209-16.
57. Gilbert D. 2006. Treatment of children and adolescents with tics and tourette syndrome. J Child Neurol, 21:690-700.
58. Gilles de la Tourette GAEB. 1885. Etude sur une affection nerveuse caracterisee par de l'incoordination motrice accompagnee d'echolalie et de copralalie. Arch Neurol, 9:19-42.
59. Gorgulho A, De Salles AA, Frighetto L, et al. 2005. Incidence of hemorrhage associated with electrophysiological studies performed using macroelectrodes and microelectrodes in functional neurosurgery. J Neurosurg, 105:888-96.
60. Grabli D, McCairn K, Hirsch EC, et al. 2004. Behavioural disorders induced by external globus pallidus dysfunction in primates: I. Behavioural study. Brain, 127:2039-54.
61. Graybiel AM, Aosaki T, Flaherty AW, et al. 1994. The basal ganglia and adaptive motor control. Science, 265:1826-31.
62. Haber S, Kowall N, Vonsattel J, et al. 1986. Gilles de la Tourette syndrome: a post-mortem neuropathological and immunohistochemical study. J Neurol Sci, 75:225-41.
63. Haber SN, Wolfer D. 1992. Basal ganglia peptidergic staining in Tourette syndrome: a follow-up study. Adv Neurol, 48:145-50.
64. Hadamitzky M, Harich S, Koch M, et al. 2007. Deficient pre-pulse inhibition induced by selective breeding of rats can be restored by the dopamine D2 antagonist haloperidol. Behav Brain Res, 177:364-7.
65. Hamani C, Lozano AM. 2006. Hardware-related complications of deep brain stimulation: a review of the published literature. Stereotact Func Neurosurg, 84:248-51.
66. Hamani C, Moro E. 2007. Surgery for other movement disorders: dystonia, tics. Curr Opin Neurol, 20:470-6.
67. Harcherik DF, Leckman JF, Detlor J, et al. 1984. A new instrument for clinical studies of Tourette's syndrome. Am J Acad Child Psychiatry, 23:153-60.
68. Hardesty DE, Sackeim HA. 2007. Deep brain stimulation in movement and psychiatric disorders. Biol Psychiatry, 61:831-5.
69. Harris K, Singer HS. 2006. Tic disorders: neural circuits, neurochemistry, and neuroimmunology. J Child Neurol, 21:678-89.
70. Hassler R, Dieckmann G. 1970. Traitement stéréotaxique des tics et cris inarticulés ou coprolaliques considérés comme phenomena d'obsession motrice au cours de la maladie de Gilles de la Tourette. Revue Neurologique (Paris), 123:89-100.
71. Houeto JL, Karachi C, Mallet L, et al. 2005. Tourette's syndrome and deep brain stimulation. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry, 76:992-5.
72. Hyde TM, Stacey ME, Coppola R, et al. 1995. Cerebral morphometric abnormalities in Tourette's syndrome: a quantitative MRI study of monozygotic twins. Neurology, 45:1176-82.
73. Itard JMG. 1825. Mémoire sure quelques fonctions involontaires des appareils de la locomotion, de la préhension et de la voix. Archives Generales de Médecine, 8:385-407.
74. Jankovic J. 1994. Botulinum toxin in the treatment of dystonic tics. Mov Disord 9:347-9.
75. Jankovic J. 2001. Tourette's syndrome. N Engl J Med, 345:1184-92.
76. Jiménez-Jiménez FJ, García-Ruiz PJ. 2001. Pharmacological options for the treatment of Tourette's disorder. Drugs, 61:2207-20.
77. Kalanithi PSA, Zheng W, Kataoka Y, et al. 2005. Altered parvalbumin-positive neuron distribution in basal ganglia of individuals with Tourette syndrome. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 102:13307-12.
78. Kopell BH, Greenberg B, Rezai AR. 2004. Deep brain stimulation for psychiatric disorders. J Clin Neurophysiol, 21:51-67.
79. Kopell BH, Rezai AR. 2003. Psychiatric neurosurgery: a historical perspective. Neurosurg Clin N Am, 14:181-97.
80. Krauss JK, Jankovic J. Severe motor tics causing cervical myelopathy in Tourette's syndrome. Mov Disord 11:563-6.
81. Kuhn J, Lenartz D, Mai JK, et al. 2007. Deep brain stimulation of the nucleus accumbens and the internal capsule in therapeutically refractory Tourette-syndrome. J Neurol, 254:963-5.
82. Kulisevsky J, Berthier ML, Avila A. 1995. Longitudinal evolution of prefrontal leucotomy in Tourette's syndrome. Movement Disorders, 10:345-8.
83. Kurlan R. 1997. Treatment of tics. Neurol Clin, 15:403-9.
84. Kurlan R, Caine E, Lichter D, et al. 1988. Surgical treatment of severe obsessive-compulsive disorder associated with Tourette's syndrome. Neurology, 38(Suppl 1):203-4.
85. Kurlan R, Kersun J, Ballantine Jr HT, et al. 1990. Neurosurgical treatment of severe obsessive-compulsive disorder associated with Tourette's syndrome. Mov Disord, 5:152-5.
86. Lavenstein BL. 2003. Treatment approaches for children with Tourette's syndrome. Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep, 3:143-8.
87. Leckman JF, de Lotbinière AJ, Marek K, et al. 1993. Severe disturbances in speech, swallowing, and gait following stereotactic infrathalamic lesions in Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome. Neurology, 43:890-4.
88. Leckman JF, Towbin KE, Ort SI, et al. 1988. Clinical assessment of tic disorder severity. In: Cohen DJ, Bruun RD, Leckman JF (eds). Tourette's Syndrome and Tic Disorders. New York: Wiley, pp. 55-78.
89. Leckman JF, Zhang H, Vitale A, et al. 1998. Course of tic severity in Tourette syndrome: the first two decades. Pediatrics, 102:14-9.
90. Leckman JF. 2002. Tourette's syndrome. Lancet, 360:577-86.
91. Lerner A, Bagic A, Boudreau FA, et al. 2007. Neuroimaging of neuronal circuits involved in tic generation in patients with Tourette syndrome. Neurology, 68:1979-87.
92. Limousin-Dowsey P, Tisch S. 2005. Surgery for movement disorders: new applications? J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry, 76:904.
93. Liu Y, Postupna N, Falkenberg J, et al. 2008. High frequency deep brain stimulation: what are the therapeutic mechanisms? Neurosci Biobehav Rev, 32:343-51.
94. Lozano AM, Mahat N. 2004. Deep brain stimulation surgery for Parkinson's disease: mechanisms and consequences. Parkinsonism Relat Disord, 10:S49-S57.
95. Lyons KE, Wilkinson SB, Overman J, et al. 2004. Surgical and hardware complications of subthalamic stimulation: a series of 160 procedures. Neurology, 63:612-6.
96. Maciunas RJ, Maddux BN, Riley DE, et al. 2007. Prospective randomized double-blind trial of bilateral thalamic deep brain stimulation in adults with Tourette syndrome. J Neurosurg, 107:1004-14.
97. Mahler M, Luke J. Outcome of the tic syndrome. J Nerv Ment Dis, 103:433-45.
98. McGrath MJ, Campbell KM, Parks CR, et al. 2000. Glutamatergic drugs exacerbate symptomatic behaviour in a transgenic model of comorbid Tourette's syndrome and obsessive-compulsive disorder. Brain Res, 877:23-30.
99. McIntyre CC, Savasta M, Walter BJ, et al. 2004. How does deep brain stimulation work? Present understanding and future questions. J Clin Neurophysiol, 21:40-50.
100. Mink JW. 2001. Basal ganglia dysfunction in Tourette's syndrome: a new hypothesis. Pediatr Neurol, 25:190-8.
101. Mink JW, Walkup J, Frey KA, et al. 2006. Patient selection and assessment recommendations for deep brain stimulation in Tourette syndrome. Mov Disord, 21:1831-8.
102. Moldofsky H, Tullis C, Lamon R. 1974. Multiple tic syndrome (Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome). J Nerv Ment Dis, 159:282-92.
103. Montgomery Jr EB, Gale JT. 2008. Mechanisms of action of deep brain stimulation. Neurosci Biobehav Rev, 32:388-407.
104. Moriarty J, Varma AR, Stevens J, et al. 1997. A volumetric MRI study of Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome. Neurology, 49:410-5.
105. Müller-Vahl KR. 2002. The treatment of Tourette's syndrome: current opinions. Expert Opin Pharmacother, 3:899-914.
106. Nádvorník P, Šramka M, Lisý,L, et al. 1972. Experiences with dentatotomy. Confin neurol, 34:320-4.
107. Neimat JS, Patil PG, Lozano AM. 2006. Noval surgical therapies for Tourette syndrome. J Child Neurol, 21:715-8.
108. Nordstrom EJ, Burton FH. 2002. A transgenic model of comorbid Tourette's syndrome and obsessive-compulsive disorder circuitry. Mol Psychiatry, 7:617-25, 524.
109. Nuttin B, Gybels J. 2003. Deep brain stimulation for psychiatric disorders. Neurosurg Clin N Am, 14:xv-xvi.
110. Oh MY, Abosch A, Kim SH, et al. 2002. Long-term hardware-related complications of deep brain stimulation. Neurosurgery, 50:1268-76.
111. Okun MS, Fernandez HH, Foote KD, et al. 2008. Avoiding deep brain stirnulation failures in Tourette syndrome. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry, 79:111-2.
112. Okun MS, Tagliati M, Pourfar M, et al. 2005. Management of referred deep brain stimulation failures. Arch Neurol, 62:1250-5.
113. Pehek EA, Nocjar C, Roth BL, et al. 2006. Evidence for preferential involvement of 5-HT2A serotonin receptors in stress-and drug-induced dopamine release in the rat medial prefrontal cortex. Neuropsychopharmacology, 31:265-77.
114. Peterson B, Riddle MA, Cohen D J, et al. 1993. Reduced basal ganglia volumes in Tourette's syndrome using three-dimensional reconstruction techniques from magnetic resonance images. Neurology, 43:941-9.
115. Peterson BS. 2001. Neuroimaging studies of Tourette syndrome: a decade of pmgress. In: Cohen DJ, Jankovic J, Goetz CG (eds). Tourette syndrome. Volume 85 of Advances in neurology. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, pp. 179-96.
116. Robertson M, Doran M, Trimble M, et al. 1990. The treatment of Gilles de la Tourette syndrome by limbic leucotomy. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry, 53:691-4.
117. Robertson MM, Stern JS. 2000. Gilles de la Tourette syndrome: symptomatic treatment based on evidence. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 9:I/60-I/75.
118. Robertson MM, Trimble MR, Lees AJ. 1989. Self-injurious behaviour and the Gilles de la Tourette syndrome: a clinical study and review of the litemture. Psychol Med, 19:611-25.
119. Robertson MM. 2000. Tourette syndrome, associated conditions and the complexities of treatment. Brain, 123:425-62.
120. Sachdev P, Sachdev J. 1997. Sixty years of psychosurgery: its present status and its future. J Aust N Z J Psychiatry, 31:457-64.
121. Sakas DE, Kouyialis AT, Boviatsis EJ, et al. 2007. Technical aspects and considerations of deep brain stimulation surgery for movement disorders. Acta Neurochir Suppl, 97:163-70.
122. Sansur CA, Frysinger RC, Pouratian N, et al. 2007. Incidence of symptomatic hemorrhage after stereotactic electrode placement. J Neurosurg, 107:998-1003.
123. Sawle GV, Lees AJ, Hymas NF, et al. 1993. The metabolic effects of limbic leucotomy in Gilles de la Tourette syndrome. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry, 56:1016-9.
124. Serra-Mestres J, Ring HA, Costa DA, et al. 2004. Dopamine transporter binding in Gilles de la Tourette syndrome: A [123I]FP-CIT/SPECT study. Acta Psychiatr Scand, 109:140-6.
125. Sershen H, Hashim A, Lajtha A. 2000. Serotonin-mediated striatal dopamine release involves the dopamine uptake site and the serotonin receptor. Brain Res Bull, 53:353-7.
126. Servello D, Porta M, Sassi M, et al. 2008. Deep brain stimulation in 18 patients with severe Gilles de la Tourette syndrome refractory to treatment: the surgery and stimulation. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry, 79:136-42.
127. Shahed J, Poysky J, Kenney C, et al. 2007. GPi deep brain stimulation for Tourette syndrome improves tics and psychiatric comorbidities. Neurology, 68:159-60.
128. Shapiro AK, Shapiro ES, Young JG, et al. 1988. Signs, symptoms, and clinical course. In: Shapiro AK, Shapiro ES, Young JG, et al. (eds). Gilles de la Tourette Syndrome. 2nd edition. New York: Raven Press, pp. 127-93.
129. Sillay KA, Larson PS, Starr PA. 2008. Deep brain stimulator hardware-related infections: incidence and management in a large series. Neurosurgery, 62:360-6.
130. Singer HS, Butler IJ, Tune LE, et al. 1982. Dopaminergic dysfunction in Tourette syndrome. Ann Neurol, 12:361-6.
131. Singer HS, Reiss AL, Brown JE, et al. 1993. Volumetric MRI changes in basal ganglia of children with Tourette syndrome. Neurology, 43:950-6.
132. Singer HS, Szymanski S, Giuliano J, et al. 2002. Elevated intrasynaptic dopamine release in Tourette's syndrome measured by PET. Am J Psychiatry, 159:1329-36.
133. Singer HS. 2001. The treatment of tics. Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep, 1:195-202.
134. Snyder SH, Taylor KM, Coyle JT, et al. 1970. The role of brain dopamine in behavioural regulation and the actions of psychotropic drugs. Am J Psychiatry, 127:199-207.
135. Stern E, Silbersweig DA, Chee K-Y, et al. 2000. A functional neuroanatomy of tics in tourette syndrome. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 57:741-8.
136. Stevens H. 1964. The syndrome of Gilles de la Tourette and its treatment. Med Ann Dist Columbia, 33:277-9, 304.
137. Stoetter B, Braun AR, Randolph C, et al. 1992. Functional neuroanatomy of Tourette syndrome. Limbic-motor interactions studied with FDG PET. Adv Neurol, 58:213-26.
138. Sun B, Krahl SE, Zhan S, et al. 2005. Improved capsulotomy for refractory Tourette's syndrome. Stereotact Func Neurosurg, 83:55-6.
139. Swerdlow NR, Geyer MA, Braff DL. 2001. Neural circuit regulation of prepulse inhibition of startle in the rat: current knowledge and future challenges. Psychopharmacology, 156:194-215.
140. Swerdlow NR, Sutherland AN. 2005. Using animal models to develop therapeutics for Tourette Syndrome. Pharmacol Ther, 108:281-93.
141. Swerdlow NR, Sutherland AN. 2006. Preclinical models relevant to Tourette syndrome. Adv Neurol, 99:69-88.
142. Swerdlow NR, Young AB. 2001. Neuropathology in Tourette syndrome: an update. In: Cohen DJ, Jankovic J, Goetz CG (eds). Tourette syndrome, Volume 85 of Advances in neurology. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, pp. 179-96.
143. Temel Y, Ackermans L, Celik H, et al. 2004. Management of hardware infections following deep brain stimulation. Acta Neurochir (Wien), 146:355-61.
144. Temel Y, Visser-Vandewalle V. 2004. Surgery in Tourette syndrome. Mov Disord, 19:3-14.
145. The Tourette Syndrome Classification Study Group. 1993. Definitions and classifications of tic disorders. Arch Neurol 50:1013-6.
146. van der Linden C, Colle H, Vandewalle V, et al. 2002. Successful treatment of tics with bilateral internal pallidum (GPi) stimulation in a 27-year-old male patient with Gille de la Tourette's syndrome (GTS). Mov Disord, 17(Suppl 5):S341.
147. Visser-Vandewalle V, Ackermans L, van der Linden C, et al. 2006. Deep brain stimulation in Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome. Neurosurgery, 58:E590.
148. Visser-Vandewalle V, Temel Y, Boon P, et al. 2003. Chronic bilateral thalamic stimulation: a new therapeutic approach in intractable Tourette syndrome. J Neurosurg, 99:1094-100.
149. Visser-Vandewalle V, van der Linden C, Groenewegen HJ, et al. 1999. Stereotactic treatment of Gilles de la Tourette syndrome by high frequency stimulation of thalamus. Lancet, 353:724.
150. Visser-Vandewalle V. 2007. DBS in Tourette syndrome: rationale, current status and future prospects. Acta Neurochir Suppl, 97:215-22.
151. Whitty CWM, Duffield JE, Tow PM, et al. 1952. Anterior cingulectomy in the treatment of mental disease. Lancet, 1:475-81.
152. Wolf SS, Jones DW, Knable MB, et al. 1996. Tourette syndrome: prediction of phenotypic variation in monozygotic twins by caudate nucleus D2 receptor binding. Science, 273:1225-7.
153. Wong DF, Pearlson GD, Young LT, et al. 1989. D2 dopamine receptors are elevated in neuropsychiatric disorders other than schizophrenia. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab, 9(Suppl 1):S593.
154. Wong DF, Singer HS, Brandt J, et al. 1997. D2-like dopamine receptor density in Tourette syndrome measured by PET. J Nucl Med, 38:1243-7.
155. Zimmerman AM, Abrams MT, Giuliano JD, et al. 2000. Subcortical volumes in girls with Tourette syndrome, Neurology, 54:2224-9.