Approach to the Patient with Sepsis

Clinics in Chest Medicine

Volumn 30, Issue 1, 2009, Pages 1-16

  Martin, Jason B ^a   Wheeler, Arthur P ^a  

^a VANDERBILT UNIVERSITY MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

Author keywords

Definitions; Management; Sepsis; Septic shock

Indexed keywords

1 ALKYL 2 ACETYLGLYCEROPHOSPHOCHOLINE ESTERASE; ANTIINFECTIVE AGENT; CORTICOSTEROID; CORTICOTROPIN; DIURETIC AGENT; DOPAMINE; DROTRECOGIN; FLUDROCORTISONE; GLUCOSE; HYDROCORTISONE; HYPERTENSIVE FACTOR; IBUPROFEN; IMMUNOGLOBULIN; IMMUNOGLOBULIN F(AB) FRAGMENT; INSULIN; INTERLEUKIN 1 RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; KETOCONAZOLE; MONOCLONAL ANTIBODY; NORADRENALIN; PLACEBO; PROSTAGLANDIN E1; STEROID; THROMBOCYTE ACTIVATING FACTOR ANTAGONIST; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR INHIBITOR; VASOACTIVE AGENT; VASOPRESSIN;

ACUTE KIDNEY FAILURE; ANTIBODY SPECIFICITY; ANTIMICROBIAL THERAPY; ASSISTED VENTILATION; BLEEDING; BLOOD CLOTTING DISORDER; BLOOD GLUCOSE MONITORING; CLINICAL FEATURE; CLINICAL TRIAL; CRITICALLY ILL PATIENT; DISEASE COURSE; DISEASE SEVERITY; DRUG COST; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG MEGADOSE; GASTROINTESTINAL DISEASE; GLUCOSE BLOOD LEVEL; HEALTH CARE COST; HUMAN; HYPERGLYCEMIA; HYPOGLYCEMIA; INFECTION CONTROL; ISCHEMIA; KIDNEY DYSFUNCTION; LOW DRUG DOSE; LUNG INSUFFICIENCY; METABOLIC ACIDOSIS; MULTIPLE ORGAN FAILURE; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PNEUMONIA; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RENAL REPLACEMENT THERAPY; REVIEW; SEPSIS; SEPTIC SHOCK; TREATMENT RESPONSE;

CLINICAL TRIALS AS TOPIC; DIAGNOSIS, DIFFERENTIAL; HUMANS; RISK FACTORS; SYSTEMIC INFLAMMATORY RESPONSE SYNDROME;

EID: 58849140149     PISSN: 02725231     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.ccm.2008.09.005     Document Type: Review

References (122)

1. Hotchkiss R.S., and Karl I.E. The pathophysiology and treatment of sepsis. N Engl J Med 348 2 (2003) 138-150
2. Bone R.C., Balk R.A., Cerra F.B., et al. American-College of Chest Physicians Society of Critical Care Medicine Consensus Conference-definitions for sepsis and organ failure and guidelines for the use of innovative therapies in sepsis. Crit Care Med 20 6 (1992) 864-874
3. Vincent J.L. Dear SIRS, I'm sorry to say that I don't like you. Crit Care Med 25 2 (1997) 372-374
4. Brun-Buisson C. The epidemiology of the systemic inflammatory response. Intensive Care Med 26 (2000) S64-S74
5. Martin G.S., Mannino D.M., Eaton S., et al. The epidemiology of sepsis in the United States from 1979 through 2000. N Engl J Med 348 16 (2003) 1546-1554
6. Angus D.C., Linde-Zwirble W.T., Lidicker J., et al. Epidemiology of severe sepsis in the United States: analysis of incidence, outcome, and associated costs of care. Crit Care Med 29 7 (2001) 1303-1310
7. Neilson A.R., Burchardi H., Chinn C., et al. Cost-effectiveness of drotrecogin alfa (activated) for the treatment of severe sepsis in Germany. J Crit Care 18 4 (2003) 217-227
8. Bernard G.R., Margolis B.D., Shanies H.M., et al. Extended evaluation of recombinant human activated protein C United States trial (ENHANCE US)-a single-arm, phase 313, multicenter study of drotrecogin alfa (activated) in severe sepsis. Chest 125 6 (2004) 2206-2216
9. Vincent J.L., Sakr Y., Ranieri M., et al. Does albumin administration influence outcome? Results of the soap study. Chest 124 4 (2003) 91S
10. Martin G.S., Mannino D.M., and Moss M. The effect of age on the development and outcome of adult sepsis. Crit Care Med 34 1 (2006) 15-21
11. Dombrovskiy V.Y., Martin A.A., Sunderam J., et al. Occurrence and outcomes sepsis: influence of race. Crit Care Med 35 3 (2007) 763-768
12. Regazzoni C.J., Irrazabal C., Luna C.M., et al. Cancer patients with septic shock: mortality predictors and neutropenia. Support Care Cancer 12 12 (2004) 833-839
13. Vandijck D.M., Benoit D.D., Depuydt P.O., et al. Impact of recent intravenous chemotherapy on outcome in severe sepsis and septic shock patients with hematological malignancies. Intensive Care Med 34 5 (2008) 847-855
14. Clemmer T.P., Metz C.A., Goris G.B., et al. Hypothermia in the sepsis syndrome and clinical outcome. Crit Care Med 20 10 (1992) 1395-1401
15. Kinasewitz G.T., Yan S.B., Basson B., et al. Universal changes in biomarkers of coagulation and inflammation occur in patients with severe sepsis, regardless of causative micro-organism. Crit Care 8 2 (2004) R82-R90
16. Levi M., and van der Poll T. Coagulation in sepsis: all bugs bite equally. Crit Care 8 2 (2004) 99-101
17. Opal S.M., Garber G.E., Larosa S.P., et al. Systemic host responses in severe sepsis analyzed by causative microorganism and treatment effects of drotrecogin alfa (activated). Clin Infect Dis 37 1 (2003) 50-58
18. Levy M.M., Macias W.L., Vincent J.L., et al. Early changes in organ function predict eventual survival in severe sepis. Crit Care Med 33 10 (2005) 2194-2201
19. Bernard G.R., Vincent J.L., Laterre P., et al. Efficacy and safety of recombinant human activated protein C for severe sepsis. N Engl J Med 344 10 (2001) 699-709
20. Dhainaut J.F., Shorr A.F., Macias W.L., et al. Dynamic evolution of coagulopathy in the first day of severe sepsis: relationship with mortality and organ failure. Crit Care Med 33 2 (2005) 341-348
21. Ferreira F.L., Bota D.P., Bross A., et al. Serial evaluation of the SOFA score to predict outcome in critically ill patients. JAMA 286 14 (2001) 1754-1758
22. Mehta R.L., Kellum J.A., Shah S.V., et al. Acute Kidney Injury Network: report of an initiative to improve outcomes in acute kidney injury. Crit Care 11 2 (2007) R31
23. Ricci Z., Cruz D., and Ronco C. The RIFLE criteria and mortality in acute kidney injury: a systematic review. Kidney Int 73 5 (2008) 538-546
24. Lemeshow S., Klar J., and Teres D. Outcome prediction for individual intensive-care patients-useful, misused, or abused. Intensive Care Med 21 9 (1995) 770-776
25. Adrie C., Alberti C., Chaix-Couturier C., et al. Epidemiology and economic evaluation of severe sepsis in France: age, severity, infection site, and place if acquisition (community, hospital, or intensive care unit) as determinants of workload and cost. J Crit Care 20 1 (2005) 46-58
26. Alberti C., Brun-Buisson C., Burchardi H., et al. Epidemiology of sepsis and infection in ICU patients from an international multicentre cohort study. Intensive Care Med 28 2 (2002) 108-121
27. Sprung C.L., Sakr Y., Vincent J.L., et al. An evaluation of systemic inflammatory response syndrome signs in the Sepsis Occurrence in Acutely ill Patients (SOAP) study. Intensive Care Med 32 3 (2006) 421-427
28. Bota D.P., Ferreira F.L., Melot C., et al. Body temperature alterations in the critically ill. Intensive Care Med 30 5 (2004) 811-816
29. James J.H., Luchette F.A., McCarter F.D., et al. Lactate is an unreliable indicator of tissue hypoxia in injury or sepsis. Lancet 354 9177 (1999) 505-508
30. Yang S.L., Chung C.S., Ayala A., et al. Differential alterations in cardiovascular responses during the progression of polymicrobial sepsis in the mouse. Shock 17 1 (2002) 55-60
31. Shapiro N.I., Howell M.D., Talmor D., et al. Serum lactate as a predictor of mortality in emergency department patients with infection. Ann Emerg Med 45 5 (2005) 524-528
32. Nguyen H.B., Rivers E.P., Knoblich B.P., et al. Early lactate clearance is associated with improved outcome in severe sepsis and septic shock. Crit Care Med 32 8 (2004) 1637-1642
33. Claeys R., Vinken S., Spapen H., et al. Plasma procalcitonin and C-reactive protein in acute septic shock: clinical and biological correlates. Crit Care Med 30 4 (2002) 757-762
34. Ugarte H., Silva E., Mercan D., et al. Procalcitonin used as a marker of infection in the intensive care unit. Crit Care Med 27 3 (1999) 498-504
35. Uzzan B., Cohen R., Nicolas P., et al. Procalcitonin as a diagnostic test for sepsis in critically ill adults and after surgery or trauma: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Crit Care Med 34 7 (2006) 1996-2003
36. Gibot S., Cravoisy A., Kolopp-Sarda M.N., et al. Time-course of sTREM (soluble triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells)-1, procalcitonin, and C-reactive protein plasma concentrations during sepsis. Crit Care Med 33 4 (2005) 792-796
37. Harbarth S., Holeckova K., Froidevaux C., et al. Diagnostic value of procalcitonin, interleukin-6, and interleukin-8 in critically ill patients admitted with suspected sepsis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 164 3 (2001) 396-402
38. Voves C., Wuillemin W.A., and Zeerleder S. International Society on Thrombosis and Haemostasis score for overt disseminated intravascular coagulation predicts organ dysfunction and fatality in sepsis patients. Blood Coagul Fibrinolysis 17 6 (2006) 445-451
39. Shorr A.F., Bernard G.R., Dhainaut J.F., et al. Protein C concentrations in severe sepsis: an early directional change in plasma levels predicts outcome. Crit Care 10 3 (2006) R92
40. BrunBuisson C., Doyon F., Carlet J., et al. Bacteremia and severe sepsis in adults: a multicenter prospective survey in ICUs and wards of 24 hospitals. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 154 3 (1996) 617-624
41. Kieft H., Hoepelman A.I.M., Zhou W., et al. The sepsis syndrome in a Dutch University Hospital-clinical observations. Arch Intern Med 153 19 (1993) 2241-2247
42. Rangelfrausto M.S., Pittet D., Costigan M., et al. The natural-history of the Systemic Inflammatory Response Syndrome (SIRS)-a prospective-study. JAMA 273 2 (1995) 117-123
43. Weinstein M.P., Reller L.B., Murphy J.R., et al. The clinical-significance of positive blood cultures-a comprehensive analysis of 500 episodes of bacteremia and fungemia in adults. 1. Laboratory and epidemiologic observations. Rev Infect Dis 5 1 (1983) 35-53
44. Weinstein M.P., Towns M.L., Quartey S.M., et al. The clinical significance of positive blood cultures in the 1990s: a prospective comprehensive evaluation of the microbiology, epidemiology, and outcome of bacteremia and fungemia in adults. Clin Infect Dis 24 4 (1997) 584-602
45. Weinstein M.P. Blood culture contamination: persisting problems and partial progress. J Clin Microbiol 41 6 (2003) 2275-2278
46. Amaral A., Opal S.M., and Vincent J.L. Coagulation in sepsis. Intensive Care Med 30 6 (2004) 1032-1040
47. Aird W.C. The hematologic system as a marker of organ dysfunction in sepsis. Mayo Clin Proc 78 7 (2003) 869-881
48. Brower R.G., Lanken P.N., MacIntyre N., et al. Higher versus lower positive end-expiratory pressures in patients with the acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med 351 4 (2004) 327-336
49. Gattinoni L., Bombino M., Pelosi P., et al. Lung structure and function in different stages of severe adult-respiratory-distress-syndrome. JAMA 271 22 (1994) 1772-1779
50. Bernard G.R., Artigas A., Brigham K.L., et al. The American-European Consensus Conference on ARDS. Definitions, mechanisms, relevant outcomes, and clinical trial coordination. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 149 3 (1994) 818-824
51. Esteban A., Anzueto A., Frutos F., et al. Characteristics and outcomes in adult patients receiving mechanical ventilation-a 28-day international study. JAMA 287 3 (2002) 345-355
52. Bernard G.R., Wheeler A.P., Russell J.A., et al. The effects of ibuprofen on the physiology and survival of patients with sepsis. N Engl J Med 336 13 (1997) 912-918
53. Barrantes F., Tian J.M., Vazquez R., et al. Acute kidney injury criteria predict outcomes of critically ill patients. Crit Care Med 36 5 (2008) 1397-1403
54. Morgera S., Schneider M., and Neumayer H.H. Long-term outcomes after acute kidney injury. Crit Care Med 36 4 (2008) S193-S197
55. Gattinoni L., Brazzi L., Pelosi P., et al. A trial of goal-oriented hemodynamic therapy in critically ill patients. N Engl J Med 333 16 (1995) 1025-1032
56. Hayes M.A., Timmins A.C., Yau E.H.S., et al. Elevation of systemic oxygen delivery in the treatment of critically ill patients. N Engl J Med 330 24 (1994) 1717-1722
57. Rivers E., Nguyen B., Havstad S., et al. Early goal-directed therapy in the treatment of severe sepsis and septic shock. N Engl J Med 345 19 (2001) 1368-1377
58. Yan S.B., Helterbrand J.D., Hartman D.L., et al. Low levels of protein C are associated with poor outcome in severe sepsis. Chest 120 3 (2001) 915-922
59. Dhainaut J., and Yan B. Drotrecogin alfa (activated) effects in patients with severe sepsis with or without DIC. Intensive Care Med 29 (2003) S88
60. Cullen J.J., Titler S., Ephgrave K.S., et al. Gastric emptying of liquids and postprandial pancreatobiliary secretion are temporarily impaired during endotoxemia. Gastroenterology 114 4 (1998) A740
61. Strassburg C.P. Shock liver. Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol 17 3 (2003) 369-381
62. Johnston J.D., Harvey C.J., Menzies I.S., et al. Gastrointestinal permeability and absorptive capacity in sepsis. Crit Care Med 24 7 (1996) 1144-1149
63. Dellinger R.P., Levy M.M., Carlet J.M., et al. Surviving Sepsis Campaign: international guidelines for management of severe sepsis and septic shock: 2008. Crit Care Med 36 1 (2008) 296-327
64. Houck P.M., Bratzler D.W., Nsa W., et al. Timing of antibiotic administration and outcomes for Medicare patients hospitalized with community-acquired pneumonia. Arch Intern Med 164 6 (2004) 637-644
65. Leibovici L., Shraga I., Drucker M., et al. The benefit of appropriate empirical antibiotic treatment in patients with bloodstream infection. J Intern Med 244 5 (1998) 379-386
66. Kollef M.H., Sherman G., Ward S., et al. Inadequate antimicrobial treatment of infections-a risk factor for hospital mortality among critically ill patients. Chest 115 2 (1999) 462-474
67. Kumar A., Roberts D., Wood K.E., et al. Duration of hypotension before initiation of effective antimicrobial therapy is the critical determinant of survival in human septic shock. Crit Care Med 34 6 (2006) 1589-1596
68. Halm E.A., Fine M.J., Marrie T.J., et al. Time to clinical stability in patients hospitalized with community-acquired pneumonia-implications for practice guidelines. JAMA 279 18 (1998) 1452-1457
69. Vidaur L., Planas K., Sierra R., et al. Ventilator-associated pneumonia-impact of organisms on clinical resolution and medical resources utilization. Chest 133 3 (2008) 625-632
70. Yee-Cabahug L., and Espiritu-Quiza Ma.F. The defervescence period of commonly used antiobiotics for typhoid fever, urinary tract infection and pneumonia in Cebu Velez General Hospital. Philipp J Intern Med 36 (1998) 283-288
71. Brower R.G., Matthay M.A., Morris A., et al. Ventilation with lower tidal volumes as compared with traditional tidal volumes for acute lung injury and the acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med 342 18 (2000) 1301-1308
72. Gajic O., Dara S.I., Mendez J.L., et al. Ventilator-associated lung injury in patients without acute lung injury at the onset of mechanical ventilation. Crit Care Med 32 9 (2004) 1817-1824
73. Meade M.O., Cook D.J., Guyatt G.H., et al. Ventilation strategy using low tidal volumes, recruitment maneuvers, and high positive end-expiratory pressure for acute lung injury and acute respiratory distress syndrome: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 299 6 (2008) 637-645
74. Mercat A., Richard J.C.M., Vielle B., et al. Positive end-expiratory pressure setting in adults with acute lung injury and acute respiratory distress syndrome-a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 299 6 (2008) 646-655
75. Girard T.D., and Bernard G.R. Mechanical ventilation in ARDS-a state-of-the-art review. Chest 131 3 (2007) 921-929
76. Anon. Effects of recruitment maneuvers in patients with acute lung injury and acute respiratory distress syndrome ventilated with high positive end-expiratory pressure. Crit Care Med 31 11 (2003) 2592-2597
77. Axler O., Tousignant C., Thompson C.R., et al. Small hemodynamic effect of typical rapid volume infusions in critically ill patients. Crit Care Med 25 6 (1997) 965-970
78. Brunkhorst F.M., Engel C., Bloos F., et al. Intensive insulin therapy and pentastarch resuscitation in severe sepsis. N Engl J Med 358 2 (2008) 125-139
79. Schierhout G., and Roberts I. Fluid resuscitation with colloid or crystalloid solutions in critically ill patients: a systematic review of randomised trials. Br Med J 316 7136 (1998) 961-964
80. Finfer S., Bellomo R., Boyce N., et al. A comparison of albumin and saline for fluid resuscitation in the intensive care unit. N Engl J Med 350 22 (2004) 2247-2256
81. Otero R.M., Nguyen H.B., Huang D.T., et al. Early goal-directed therapy in severe sepsis and septic shock revisited-concepts, controversies, and contemporary findings. Chest 130 5 (2006) 1579-1595
82. Hebert P.C., Wells G., Blajchman M.A., et al. A multicenter, randomized, controlled clinical trial of transfusion requirements in critical care. N Engl J Med 340 6 (1999) 409-417
83. Hebert P.C., Tinmouth A., and Corwin H.L. Controversies in RBC transfusion in the critically ill. Chest 131 5 (2007) 1583-1590
84. Jones A.E., and Kline J.A. Use of goal-directed therapy for severe sepsis and septic shock in academic emergency departments. Crit Care Med 33 8 (2005) 1888-1889
85. Carlbom D.J., and Rubenfeld G.D. Barriers to implementing protocol-based sepsis resuscitation in the emergency department-results of a national survey. Crit Care Med 35 11 (2007) 2525-2532
86. Wiedemann H.P., Wheeler A.P., Bernard G.R., et al. Comparison of two fluid-management strategies in acute lung injury. N Engl J Med 354 24 (2006) 2564-2575
87. Wheeler A.P., Bernard G.R., Thompson B.T., et al. Pulmonary-artery versus central venous catheter to guide treatment of acute lung injury. N Engl J Med 354 21 (2006) 2213-2224
88. Müllner M., Urbanek B., Havel C., et al. Vasopressors for shock. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 3 (2004) CD003709
89. Sakr Y., Reinhart K., Vincent J.L., et al. Does dopamine administration in shock influence outcome? Results of the Sepsis Occurrence in Acutely Ill Patients (SOAP) study. Crit Care Med 34 3 (2006) 589-597
90. Kellum J.A., and Decker J.M. Use of dopamine in acute renal failure: a meta-analysis. Crit Care Med 29 8 (2001) 1526-1531
91. Holmes C.L., Patel B.M., Russell J.A., et al. Physiology of vasopressin relevant to management of septic shock. Chest 120 3 (2001) 989-1002
92. Landry D.W., and Oliver J.A. Mechanisms of disease: the pathogenesis of vasodilatory shock. N Engl J Med 345 8 (2001) 588-595
93. Patel B.M., Chittock D.R., Russell J.A., et al. Beneficial effects of short-term vasopressin infusion during severe septic shock. Anesthesiology 96 3 (2002) 576-582
94. Russell J.A., Walley K.R., Singer J., et al. Vasopressin versus norepinephrine infusion in patients with septic shock. N Engl J Med 358 9 (2008) 877-887
95. Annane D., Bellissant E., Bollaert P.E., et al. Corticosteroids for severe sepsis and septic shock: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Br Med J 329 7464 (2004) 480-484
96. Annane D., Sebille V., Charpentier C., et al. Effect of treatment with low doses of hydrocortisone and fludrocortisone on mortality in patients with septic shock. JAMA 288 7 (2002) 862-871
97. Hamrahian A.H., Oseni T.S., and Arafah B.M. Measurements of serum free cortisol in critically ill patients. N Engl J Med 350 16 (2004) 1629-1638
98. Oelkers W. The role of high- and low-dose corticotropin tests in the diagnosis of secondary adrenal insufficiency. Eur J Endocrinol 139 6 (1998) 567-570
99. Shenker Y., and Skatrud J.B. Adrenal insufficiency in critically ill patients. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 163 7 (2001) 1520-1523
100. Sprung C.L., Annane D., Keh D., et al. Hydrocortisone therapy for patients with septic shock. N Engl J Med 358 2 (2008) 111-124
101. Levy H., Laterre P.F., Bates B., et al. Steroid use in PROWESS severe sepsis patients treated with drotrecogin alfa (activated). Crit Care 9 5 (2005) R502-R507
102. Minneci P.C., Deans K.J., Banks S.M., et al. Meta-analysis: the effect of steroids on survival and shock during sepsis depends on the dose. Ann Intern Med 141 1 (2004) 47-56
103. Angus D.C., Laterre P.F., Helterbrand J., et al. The effect of drotrecogin alfa (activated) on long-term survival after severe sepsis. Crit Care Med 32 11 (2004) 2199-2206
104. Vincent J.L., Angus D.C., Artigas A., et al. Effects of drotrecogin alfa (activated) on organ dysfunction in the PROWESS trial. Crit Care Med 31 3 (2003) 834-840
105. Vincent J.L., Bernard G.R., Beale R., et al. Drotrecogin alfa (activated) treatment in severe sepsis from the global open-label trial ENHANCE: further evidence for survival and safety and implications for early treatment. Crit Care Med 33 10 (2005) 2266-2277
106. Vincent J.L., O'Brien J., Wheeler A., et al. Use of an integrated clinical trial database to evaluate the effect of timing of drotrecogin alfa (activated) treatment in severe sepsis. Crit Care 10 3 (2006) R74
107. Ely E.W., Laterre P.F., Angus D.C., et al. Drotrecogin alfa (activated) administration across clinically important subgroups of patients with severe sepsis. Crit Care Med 31 1 (2003) 12-19
108. Abraham E., Laterre P., Garg R., et al. Drotrecogin alfa (activated) for adults with severe sepsis and a low risk of death. N Engl J Med 353 13 (2005) 1332-1341
109. Fowler R.A., Hill-Popper M., Stasinos J., et al. Cost-effectiveness of recombinant human activated protein C and the influence of severity of illness in the treatment of patients with severe sepsis. J Crit Care 18 3 (2003) 181-191
110. Frampton J.E., and Foster R.H. Drotrecogin alfa (activated)-a pharmacoeconomic review of its use in severe sepsis. Pharmacoeconomics 22 7 (2004) 445-476
111. Turina M., Fry D.E., and Polk H.C. Acute hyperglycemia and the innate immune system: clinical, cellular, and molecular aspects. Crit Care Med 33 7 (2005) 1624-1633
112. Van den Berghe G., Wouters P., Weekers F., et al. Intensive insulin therapy in critically ill patients. N Engl J Med 345 19 (2001) 1359-1367
113. Van den Berghe G., Wilmer A., Hermans G., et al. Intensive insulin therapy in the medical ICU. N Engl J Med 354 5 (2006) 449-461
114. Forsythe S.M., and Schmidt G.A. Sodium bicarbonate for the treatment of lactic acidosis. Chest 117 1 (2000) 260-267
115. Stacpoole P.W., Wright E.C., Baumgartner T.G., et al. A controlled clinical-trial of dichloroacetate for treatment of lactic-acidosis in adults. N Engl J Med 327 22 (1992) 1564-1569
116. Mehta R.L., Pascual M.T., Soroko S., et al. Diuretics, mortality, and nonrecovery of renal function in acute renal failure. JAMA 288 20 (2002) 2547-2553
117. The VA/NIH Acute Renal Failure Trial Network. Intensity of renal support in critically ill patients with acute kidney injury. N Engl J Med 359 1 (2008) 7-20
118. Krishnan J.A., Parce P.B., Martinez A., et al. Caloric intake in medical ICU patients-consistency of care with guidelines and relationship to clinical outcomes. Chest 124 1 (2003) 297-305
119. Martin C.M., Doig G.S., Heyland D.K., et al. Multicentre, cluster-randomized clinical trial of algorithms for critical-care enteral and parenteral therapy (ACCEPT). Can Med Assoc J 170 2 (2004) 197-204
120. Gadek J.E., DeMichele S.J., Karlstad M.D., et al. Effect of enteral feeding with eicosapentaenoic acid, gamma-linolenic acid, and antioxidants in patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome. Crit Care Med 27 8 (1999) 1409-1420
121. Pontes-Arruda A., Aragao A.M.A., and Albuquerque J.D. Effects of enteral feeding with eicosapentaenoic acid, gamma-linolenic acid, and antioxidants in mechanically ventilated patients with severe sepsis and septic shock. Crit Care Med 34 9 (2006) 2325-2333
122. Singer P., Theilla M., Fisher H., et al. Benefit of an enteral diet enriched with eicosapentaenoic acid and gamma-linolenic acid in ventilated patients with acute lung injury. Crit Care Med 34 4 (2006) 1033-1038