Pneumonia and Other Respiratory Infections

Pediatric Clinics of North America

Volumn 56, Issue 1, 2009, Pages 135-156

  Ranganathan, Sarath C ^a,b,c   Sonnappa, Samantha ^d,e  

^a ROYAL CHILDREN'S HOSPITAL   (Australia)

^b MURDOCH CHILDREN'S RESEARCH INSTITUTE   (Australia)

^c UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE   (Australia)

^d GREAT ORMOND STREET HOSPITAL   (United Kingdom)

^e UNIVERSITY COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Complications of community acquired pneumonia; Pneumonia; Respiratory infections; Treatment of pneumonia; Tuberculosis

Indexed keywords

AMOXICILLIN; AMOXICILLIN PLUS CLAVULANIC ACID; AMPICILLIN; AMPICILLIN PLUS GENTAMICIN; ANTIAMEBIC AGENT; ANTIBIOTIC AGENT; AZITHROMYCIN; BCG VACCINE; BENZATHINE PENICILLIN; CEPHALOSPORIN; CHLORAMPHENICOL; CLARITHROMYCIN; COTRIMOXAZOLE; DIETHYLCARBAMAZINE; ERYTHROMYCIN; FLUCLOXACILLIN; GENTAMICIN; HAEMOPHILUS INFLUENZAE TYPE B VACCINE; ISONIAZID; MACROLIDE; METICILLIN; MUCOLYTIC AGENT; PENICILLIN G; PROCAINE; PROCAINE PENICILLIN; RIFAMPICIN; ROXITHROMYCIN; TEICOPLANIN; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; UNINDEXED DRUG; VANCOMYCIN;

ADENOVIRUS; AMBULATORY CARE; AMEBIASIS; ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE; BCG VACCINATION; BINDING AFFINITY; BLOOD CULTURE; BORDETELLA PERTUSSIS; BRONCHIOLITIS; BRONCHOPLEURAL FISTULA; COMMUNITY ACQUIRED PNEUMONIA; CYTOMEGALOVIRUS; DEVELOPING COUNTRY; DIAGNOSTIC TEST; DIET SUPPLEMENTATION; DISEASE SEVERITY; DRUG BINDING; DRUG DOSE COMPARISON; DRUG MEGADOSE; EMPYEMA; ENTEROBACTERIACEAE; EOSINOPHILIA; HAEMOPHILUS INFLUENZAE; HUMAN; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTED PATIENT; HYPOXIA; INFLUENZA VIRUS; INTERFERON GAMMA RELEASE ASSAY; LISTERIA MONOCYTOGENES; LUNG ABSCESS; LUNG AMEBIASIS; LUNG ASPIRATION; LUNG HYDATID CYST; LUNG TUBERCULOSIS; METAPNEUMOVIRUS; MYCOBACTERIUM TUBERCULOSIS; OXYGEN THERAPY; PARAINFLUENZA VIRUS; PENICILLIN RESISTANCE; PHYSIOTHERAPY; PNEUMATOCELE; PNEUMOCYSTIS JIROVECI; PNEUMONIA; PNEUMOTHORAX; PYOPNEUMOTHORAX; RESPIRATORY SYNCYTIAL PNEUMOVIRUS; RESPIRATORY TRACT INFECTION; REVIEW; STREPTOCOCCUS AGALACTIAE; STREPTOCOCCUS PNEUMONIAE; THORACOCENTESIS; THORACOSCOPY; THORACOTOMY; THORAX RADIOGRAPHY; TUBERCULOSIS; UREAPLASMA UREALYTICUM; WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION;

ADOLESCENT; ANIMALS; ANTI-BACTERIAL AGENTS; CHILD; CHILD, PRESCHOOL; COMMUNITY-ACQUIRED INFECTIONS; DISEASE TRANSMISSION, INFECTIOUS; DRUG ADMINISTRATION SCHEDULE; DRUG RESISTANCE, BACTERIAL; DRUG THERAPY, COMBINATION; EMPYEMA; HUMANS; INFANT; INFANT, NEWBORN; LUNG ABSCESS; LUNG DISEASES, PARASITIC; MEDICATION ADHERENCE; OXYGEN; PNEUMONIA; PNEUMOTHORAX; PRACTICE GUIDELINES AS TOPIC; SEVERITY OF ILLNESS INDEX; TUBERCULOSIS, PULMONARY; VACCINATION;

EID: 58149302851     PISSN: 00313955     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.pcl.2008.10.005     Document Type: Review

References (105)

1. Wardlaw T., Salama P., Johansson E.W., et al. Pneumonia: the leading killer of children. Lancet 368 9541 (2006) 1048-1050
2. Williams B.G., Gouws E., Boschi-Pinto C., et al. Estimates of world-wide distribution of child deaths from acute respiratory infections. Lancet Infect Dis 2 1 (2002) 25-32
3. World Health Organization. The World Health Organization report 2005. Available at: (2005). http://www.who.int/whr/en Accessed July 2008
4. Jokinen C., Heiskanen L., Juvonen H., et al. Incidence of community-acquired pneumonia in the population of four municipalities in eastern Finland. Am J Epidemiol 137 9 (1993) 977-988
5. McCracken Jr. G.H. Etiology and treatment of pneumonia. Pediatr Infect Dis J 19 4 (2000) 373-377
6. World Health Organisation. The management of acute respiratory infections in children. practical guidelines for outpatient care (1995), WHO, Geneva
7. Palafox M., Guiscafre H., Reyes H., et al. Diagnostic value of tachypnoea in pneumonia defined radiologically. Arch Dis Child 82 1 (2000) 41-45
8. Heiskanen-Kosma T., Korppi M., Jokinen C., et al. Etiology of childhood pneumonia: serologic results of a prospective, population-based study. Pediatr Infect Dis J 17 11 (1998) 986-991
9. Michelow I.C., Olsen K., Lozano J., et al. Epidemiology and clinical characteristics of community-acquired pneumonia in hospitalized children. Pediatrics 113 4 (2004) 701-707
10. Wubbel L., Muniz L., Ahmed A., et al. Etiology and treatment of community-acquired pneumonia in ambulatory children. Pediatr Infect Dis J 18 2 (1999) 98-104
11. Juven T., Mertsola J., Waris M., et al. Etiology of community-acquired pneumonia in 254 hospitalized children. Pediatr Infect Dis J 19 4 (2000) 293-298
12. British Thoracic Society. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in childhood. Thorax 57 Suppl I (2002) i1-24
13. Pio A. Standard case management of pneumonia in children in developing countries: the cornerstone of the Acute Respiratory Infection Programme. Bull World Health Organ 81 4 (2003) 298-300
14. Kumar P., and McKean M.C. Evidence based paediatrics: review of BTS guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in children. J Infect 48 2 (2004) 134-138
15. Chang C.C., Cheng A.C., and Chang A.B. Over-the-counter (OTC) medications to reduce cough as an adjunct to antibiotics for acute pneumonia in children and adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 4 (2007) CD006088
16. Paludo C., Zhang L., Lincho C.S., et al. Chest physical therapy for children hospitalized with acute pneumonia: a randomized controlled trial. Thorax 63 9 (2008) 791-794
17. Aggarwal R., Sentz J., and Miller M.A. Role of zinc administration in prevention of childhood diarrhea and respiratory illnesses: a meta-analysis. Pediatrics 119 6 (2007) 1120-1130
18. Swingler G.H., Hussey G.D., and Zwarenstein M. Randomised controlled trial of clinical outcome after chest radiograph in ambulatory acute lower-respiratory infection in children. Lancet 351 9100 (1998) 404-408
19. Davies H.D., Wang E.E., Manson D., et al. Reliability of the chest radiograph in the diagnosis of lower respiratory infections in young children. Pediatr Infect Dis J 15 7 (1996) 600-604
20. Anonymous. Pneumonia in childhood. Lancet 1 8588 (1988) 741-743
21. Banya W.A., O'Dempsey T.J., McArdle T., et al. Predictors for a positive blood culture in African children with pneumonia. Pediatr Infect Dis J 15 4 (1996) 292-297
22. Zar H.J., Hanslo D., Apolles P., et al. Induced sputum versus gastric lavage for microbiological confirmation of pulmonary tuberculosis in infants and young children: a prospective study. Lancet 365 9454 (2005) 130-134
23. Vuori-Holopainen E., and Peltola H. Reappraisal of lung tap: review of an old method for better etiologic diagnosis of childhood pneumonia. Clin Infect Dis 32 5 (2001) 715-726
24. Falade A.G., Mulholland E.K., Adegbola R.A., et al. Bacterial isolates from blood and lung aspirate cultures in Gambian children with lobar pneumonia. Ann Trop Paediatr 17 4 (1997) 315-319
25. Vuori-Holopainen E., Salo E., Saxen H., et al. Etiological diagnosis of childhood pneumonia by use of transthoracic needle aspiration and modern microbiological methods. Clin Infect Dis 34 5 (2002) 583-590
26. Smyth A., Carty H., and Hart C.A. Clinical predictors of hypoxaemia in children with pneumonia. Ann Trop Paediatr 18 1 (1998) 31-40
27. Dhawan A., Narang A., and Singhi S. Hyponatraemia and the inappropriate ADH syndrome in pneumonia. Ann Trop Paediatr 12 4 (1992) 455-462
28. Straus W.L., Qazi S.A., Kundi Z., et al. Antimicrobial resistance and clinical effectiveness of co-trimoxazole versus amoxycillin for pneumonia among children in Pakistan: randomised controlled trial. Pakistan Co-trimoxazole Study Group. Lancet 352 9124 (1998) 270-274
29. Kabra S.K., Lodha R., and Pandey R.M. Antibiotics for community acquired pneumonia in children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 3 (2006) CD004874
30. Schrag S.J., McGee L., Whitney C.G., et al. Emergence of Streptococcus pneumoniae with very-high-level resistance to penicillin. Antimicrobial Agents Chemother 48 8 (2004) 3016-3023
31. Low D.E., Pichichero M.E., and Schaad U.B. Optimizing antibacterial therapy for community-acquired respiratory tract infections in children in an era of bacterial resistance. Clin Pediatr (Phila) 43 2 (2004) 135-151
32. Whitney C.G., Farley M.M., Hadler J., et al. Increasing prevalence of multidrug-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae in the United States. N Engl J Med 343 26 (2000) 1917-1924
33. Deeks S.L., Palacio R., Ruvinsky R., et al. Risk factors and course of illness among children with invasive penicillin-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae. The Streptococcus pneumoniae Working Group. Pediatrics 103 2 (1999) 409-413
34. Friedland I.R. Comparison of the response to antimicrobial therapy of penicillin-resistant and penicillin-susceptible pneumococcal disease. Pediatr Infect Dis J 14 10 (1995) 885-890
35. Tan T.Q., Mason Jr. E.O., Barson W.J., et al. Clinical characteristics and outcome of children with pneumonia attributable to penicillin-susceptible and penicillin-nonsusceptible Streptococcus pneumoniae. Pediatrics 102 6 (1998) 1369-1375
36. Doern G.V., Jones R.N., Pfaller M.A., et al. Haemophilus influenzae and Moraxella catarrhalis from patients with community-acquired respiratory tract infections: antimicrobial susceptibility patterns from the SENTRY Antimicrobial Surveillance Program (United States and Canada, 1997). Antimicrob Agents Chemother 43 2 (1999) 385-389
37. Gorak E.J., Yamada S.M., and Brown J.D. Community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in hospitalized adults and children without known risk factors. Clin Infect Dis 29 4 (1999) 797-800
38. Gang R.K., Sanyal S.C., Mokaddas E., et al. Rifampicin as an adjunct to vancomycin therapy in MRSA septicaemia in burns. Bur 25 7 (1999) 640-644
39. Mulholland K., Hilton S., Adegbola R., et al. Randomised trial of Haemophilus influenzae type-b tetanus protein conjugate vaccine [corrected] for prevention of pneumonia and meningitis in Gambian infants. Lancet 349 9060 (1997) 1191-1197
40. Levine O.S., Lagos R., Munoz A., et al. Defining the burden of pneumonia in children preventable by vaccination against Haemophilus influenzae type b. Pediatr Infect Dis J 18 12 (1999) 1060-1064
41. Gessner B.D., Sutanto A., Linehan M., et al. Incidences of vaccine-preventable Haemophilus influenzae type b pneumonia and meningitis in Indonesian children: hamlet-randomised vaccine-probe trial. Lancet 365 9453 (2005) 43-52
42. Black S., Shinefield H., Fireman B., et al. Efficacy, safety and immunogenicity of heptavalent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine in children. Northern California Kaiser Permanente Vaccine Study Center Group. Pediatr Infect Dis J 19 3 (2000) 187-195
43. Klugman K.P., Madhi S.A., Huebner R.E., et al. A trial of a 9-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine in children with and those without HIV infection. N Engl J Med 349 14 (2003) 1341-1348
44. Cutts F.T., Zaman S.M., Enwere G., et al. Efficacy of nine-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine against pneumonia and invasive pneumococcal disease in The Gambia: randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 365 9465 (2005) 1139-1146
45. Obaro S.K., and Madhi S.A. Bacterial pneumonia vaccines and childhood pneumonia: are we winning, refining, or redefining?. Lancet Infect Dis 6 3 (2006) 150-161
46. Whitney C.G., Pilishvili T., Farley M.M., et al. Effectiveness of seven-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine against invasive pneumococcal disease: a matched case-control study. Lancet 368 9546 (2006) 1495-1502
47. Cohen R., Levy C., de La R.F., et al. Impact of pneumococcal conjugate vaccine and of reduction of antibiotic use on nasopharyngeal carriage of nonsusceptible pneumococci in children with acute otitis media. Pediatr Infect Dis J 25 11 (2006) 1001-1007
48. Mulholland K. Childhood pneumonia mortality-a permanent global emergency. Lancet 370 9583 (2007) 285-289
49. Grove R.D., and Hetzel A.M. Vital statistics rates in the United States 1940-1960 (1968), US National Center for Health Statistics, Washington DC 2008
50. Bryce J., Boschi-Pinto C., Shibuya K., et al. WHO estimates of the causes of death in children. Lancet 365 9465 (2005) 1147-1152
51. Jones G., Steketee R.W., Black R.E., et al. How many child deaths can we prevent this year?. Lancet 362 9377 (2003) 65-71
52. Sazawal S., and Black R.E. Effect of pneumonia case management on mortality in neonates, infants, and preschool children: a meta-analysis of community-based trials. Lancet Infect Dis 3 9 (2003) 547-556
53. Pandey M.R., Sharma P.R., Gubhaju B.B., et al. Impact of a pilot acute respiratory infection (ARI) control programme in a rural community of the hill region of Nepal. Ann Trop Paediatr 9 4 (1989) 212-220
54. Pandey M.R., Daulaire N.M., Starbuck E.S., et al. Reduction in total under-five mortality in western Nepal through community-based antimicrobial treatment of pneumonia. Lancet 338 8773 (1991) 993-997
55. WHO. Programme for the control of acute respiratory infections. Technical basis for the WHO recommendations on the management of pneumonia in children at first level health facilities (1991), World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland
56. Kielmann A.A., Taylor C.E., DeSweemer C., et al. The Narangwal experiment on interactions of nutrition and infections: II. Morbidity and mortality effects. Indian J Med Res 68 Suppl (1978) 21-41
57. Mtango F.D., and Neuvians D. Acute respiratory infections in children under five years. Control project in Bagamoyo District, Tanzania. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 80 6 (1986) 851-858
58. Khan A.J., Khan J.A., Akbar M., et al. Acute respiratory infections in children: a case management intervention in Abbottabad District, Pakistan. Bull World Health Organ 68 5 (1990) 577-585
59. World Health Organization. Case management of acute respiratory infections in children: intervention studies. WHO/ARI/88 2 (1998), WHO, Geneva
60. Bang A.T., Bang R.A., Tale O., et al. Reduction in pneumonia mortality and total childhood mortality by means of community-based intervention trial in Gadchiroli, India. Lancet 336 8709 (1990) 201-206
61. Fauveau V., Stewart M.K., Chakraborty J., et al. Impact on mortality of a community-based programme to control acute lower respiratory tract infections. Bull World Health Organ 70 1 (1992) 109-116
62. Roesin R., Sutanto A., and Sastra K. ARI intervention study in Kediri, Indonesia (a summary of study results). Bull Int Union Tuberc Lung Dis 65 4 (1990) 23
63. CATCHUP study group. Clinical efficacy of co-trimoxazole versus amoxicillin twice daily for treatment of pneumonia: a randomised controlled clinical trial in Pakistan. Arch Dis Child 86 2 (2002) 113-118
64. Mulholland E.K., Falade A.G., Corrah P.T., et al. A randomized trial of chloramphenicol vs. trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole for the treatment of malnourished children with community-acquired pneumonia. Pediatr Infect Dis J 14 11 (1995) 959-965
65. Campbell H., Byass P., Forgie I.M., et al. Trial of co-trimoxazole versus procaine penicillin with ampicillin in treatment of community-acquired pneumonia in young Gambian children. Lancet 2 8621 (1988) 1182-1184
66. Sidal M., Oguz F., Unuvar A., et al. Trial of co-trimoxazole versus procaine penicillin G and benzathin penicillin + procaine penicillin G in the treatment of childhood pneumonia. J Trop Pediatr 40 5 (1994) 301-304
67. Hazir T., Fox L.M., Nisar Y.B., et al. Ambulatory short-course high-dose oral amoxicillin for treatment of severe pneumonia in children: a randomised equivalency trial. Lancet 371 9606 (2008) 49-56
68. Asghar R., Banajeh S., Egas J., et al. Chloramphenicol versus ampicillin plus gentamicin for community acquired very severe pneumonia among children aged 2-59 months in low resource settings: multicentre randomised controlled trial (SPEAR study). BMJ 336 7635 (2008) 80-84
69. Hazir T., Qazi S.A., Bin N.Y., et al. Comparison of standard versus double dose of amoxicillin in the treatment of non-severe pneumonia in children aged 2-59 months: a multi-centre, double blind, randomised controlled trial in Pakistan. Arch Dis Child 92 4 (2007) 291-297
70. Maher D., and Raviglione M. Global epidemiology of tuberculosis. Clin Chest Med 26 2 (2005) 167-182
71. Atkinson P., Taylor H., Sharland M., et al. Resurgence of paediatric tuberculosis in London. Arch Dis Child 86 4 (2002) 264-265
72. Shah N.S., Harrington T., Huber M., et al. Increased reported cases of tuberculosis among children younger than 5 years of age, Maricopa County, Arizona, 2002-2003. Pediatr Infect Dis J 25 2 (2006) 151-155
73. Tuberculosis Coalition for Technical Assistance. International standards for tuberculosis care. 2008. Available at: (2008). www.istcweb.org/materials.html Accessed July 2008
74. Smuts N.A., Beyers N., Gie R.P., et al. Value of the lateral chest radiograph in tuberculosis in children. Pediatr Radiol 24 7 (1994) 478-480
75. Swingler G.H., du T.G., Andronikou S., et al. Diagnostic accuracy of chest radiography in detecting mediastinal lymphadenopathy in suspected pulmonary tuberculosis. Arch Dis Child 90 11 (2005) 1153-1156
76. Abadco D.L., and Steiner P. Gastric lavage is better than bronchoalveolar lavage for isolation of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in childhood pulmonary tuberculosis. Pediatr Infect Dis J 11 9 (1992) 735-738
77. Ranganathan S., Connell T., and Curtis N. Interferon-gamma release assays in children-no better than tuberculin skin testing?. J Infect 54 4 (2007) 412-413
78. Connell T.G., Curtis N., Ranganathan S.C., et al. Performance of a whole blood interferon gamma assay for detecting latent infection with Mycobacterium tuberculosis in children. Thorax 61 7 (2006) 616-620
79. Schaaf H.S., Parkin D.P., Seifart H.I., et al. Isoniazid pharmacokinetics in children treated for respiratory tuberculosis. Arch Dis Child 90 6 (2005) 614-618
80. Simoes E.A., Cherian T., Chow J., et al. Acute respiratory infections in children. In: Jamieson D.T., Breman J.G., Measham A.R., et al. (Eds). Disease control priorities in developing countries (2006), Oxford University Press, New York 483-498
81. Management of children with pneumonia and HIV in low-resource settings. Report of a consultative meeting. Harare, Zimbabwe, 2003. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2004.
82. McNally L.M., Jeena P.M., Gajee K., et al. Effect of age, polymicrobial disease, and maternal HIV status on treatment response and cause of severe pneumonia in South African children: a prospective descriptive study. Lancet 369 9571 (2007) 1440-1451
83. Qian Z.X. Thoracic hydatid cysts: a report of 842 cases treated over a thirty-year period. Ann Thorac Surg 46 3 (1988) 342-346
84. Kilani T., and El H.S. Pulmonary hydatid and other lung parasitic infections. Curr Opin Pulm Med 8 3 (2002) 218-223
85. Cohen H.G., and Reynolds T.B. Comparison of metronidazole and chloroquine for the treatment of amoebic liver abscess. A controlled trial. Gastroenterology 69 1 (1975) 35-41
86. Cameron E.W. The treatment of pleuropulmonary amebiasis with metronidazole. Chest 73 5 (1978) 647-650
87. Ibarra-Perez C., and Selman-Lama M. Diagnosis and treatment of amebic "empyema": report of eighty-eight cases. Am J Surg 134 2 (1977) 283-287
88. Ibarra-Perez C. Thoracic complications of amebic abscess of the liver: report of 501 cases. Chest 79 6 (1981) 672-677
89. Parab P.B., Samuel A.M., Udwadia F.E., et al. Hypersensitivity reaction in tropical eosinophilia. Indian J Med Res 69 (1979) 122-127
90. Ottesen E.A., and Nutman T.B. Tropical pulmonary eosinophilia. Annu Rev Med 43 (1992) 417-424
91. Ganatra R.D., Sheth U.K., and Lewis R.A. Diethylcarbamazine (Hetrazan) in tropical eosinophilia. Indian J Med Res 46 2 (1958) 205-222
92. Pinkston P., Vijayan V.K., Nutman T.B., et al. Acute tropical pulmonary eosinophilia. Characterization of the lower respiratory tract inflammation and its response to therapy. J Clin Invest 80 1 (1987) 216-225
93. Thomson A.H., Hull J., Kumar M.R., et al. Randomised trial of intrapleural urokinase in the treatment of childhood empyema. Thorax 57 4 (2002) 343-347
94. Sonnappa S., Cohen G., Owens C.M., et al. Comparison of urokinase and video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery for treatment of childhood empyema. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 174 2 (2006) 221-227
95. Kurt B.A., Winterhalter K.M., Connors R.H., et al. Therapy of parapneumonic effusions in children: video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery versus conventional thoracostomy drainage. Pediatrics 118 3 (2006) e547-e553 [Epub 2006 Aug 14]
96. Avansino J.R., Goldman B., Sawin R.S., et al. Primary operative versus nonoperative therapy for pediatric empyema: a meta-analysis. Pediatrics 115 6 (2005) 1652-1659
97. Victoria M.S., Steiner P., and Rao M. Persistent postpneumonic pneumatoceles in children. Chest 79 3 (1981) 359-361
98. Imamoglu M., Cay A., Kosucu P., et al. Pneumatoceles in postpneumonic empyema: an algorithmic approach. J Pediatr Surg 40 7 (2005) 1111-1117
99. Asher M.I., Spier S., Beland M., et al. Primary lung abscess in childhood: the long-term outcome of conservative management. Am J Dis Child 136 6 (1982) 491-494
100. van Sonnenberg E., D'Agostino H.B., Casola G., et al. Lung abscess: CT-guided drainage. Radiology 178 2 (1991) 347-351
101. Yen C.C., Tang R.B., Chen S.J., et al. Pediatric lung abscess: a retrospective review of 23 cases. J Microbiol Immunol Infect 37 1 (2004) 45-49
102. Chan P.C., Huang L.M., Wu P.S., et al. Clinical management and outcome of childhood lung abscess: a 16-year experience. J Microbiol Immunol Infect 38 3 (2005) 183-188
103. Balfour-Lynn I.M., Abrahamson E., Cohen G., et al. BTS guidelines for the management of pleural infection in children. Thorax 60 Suppl 1 (2005) i1-i21
104. Puskas J.D., Mathisen D.J., Grillo H.C., et al. Treatment strategies for bronchopleural fistula. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 109 5 (1995) 989-995
105. Hallows M.R., and Parikh D.H. Surgical management of children with pyopneumothorax: serratus anterior digitation flap. J Pediatr Surg 39 7 (2004) 1122-1124