Asthma in Latin America: A public health challenge and research opportunity

Allergy: European Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology

Volumn 64, Issue 1, 2009, Pages 5-17

  Cooper, P J ^a,b,c,g   Rodrigues, L C ^d   Cruz, A A ^e   Barreto, M L ^f  

^a Centro de Investigaciones FEPIS   (Ecuador)

^b UNIVERSIDAD SAN FRANCISCO DE QUITO   (Ecuador)

^c ST GEORGE'S UNIVERSITY OF LONDON   (United Kingdom)

^d LONDON SCHOOL OF HYGIENE AND TROPICAL MEDICINE   (United Kingdom)

^e WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION   (Switzerland)

^f FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF BAHIA   (Brazil)

^g NONE   (Ecuador)

Author keywords

Allergy; Asthma; Latin America; Urbanization

Indexed keywords

AIR POLLUTION; ASTHMA; ATOPY; COCKROACH; CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK; DERMATOPHAGOIDES; DIET; ECUADOR; ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE; GENETIC TRAIT; HEALTH CARE POLICY; HEALTH SERVICE; HUMAN; HYGIENE; LIFESTYLE; MEDICAL RESEARCH; MIGRATION; MORBIDITY; MORTALITY; OBESITY; PHYSICAL ACTIVITY; POLLUTANT; POVERTY; PREVALENCE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PUBLIC HEALTH PROBLEM; REVIEW; RURAL POPULATION; SOUTH AND CENTRAL AMERICA; URBANIZATION; WHEEZING;

ASTHMA; BIOMEDICAL RESEARCH; HUMANS; LATIN AMERICA; RISK FACTORS; URBANIZATION;

EID: 58149123948     PISSN: 01054538     EISSN: 13989995     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1398-9995.2008.01902.x     Document Type: Review

References (114)

1. Burney PG, Chinn S, Rona RJ. Has the prevalence of asthma increased in children? Evidence from the national study of health and growth 1973-86. BMJ 1990 300 : 1306 1310.
2. Beasley R, Crane J, Lai CK, Pearce N. Prevalence and etiology of asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2000 105 : S466 S472.
3. Platts-Mills TAE, Erwin E, Heymann P, Woodfolk J. Is the hygiene hypothesis still a viable explanation for the increased prevalence of asthma? Allergy 2005 60 : S25 S31.
4. WHO. Global Alliance against Chronic Respiratory Diseases. General Meeting Report. Seoul, Republic of Korea, 1-2 June 2007. Geneva : World Health Organization, 2007 (http://www.who.int/gard/publications/ MtgReport_GMSeoul_Final.pdf).
5. ISAAC. Worldwide variations in the prevalence of asthma symptoms: the International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Childhood (ISAAC). Eur Respir J 1998 12 : 315 335.
6. ISAAC. Worldwide variation in prevalence of symptoms of asthma, allergic rhinoconjunctivitis, and atopic eczema: ISAAC. The International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Childhood (ISAAC) Steering Committee. Lancet 1998 351 : 1225 1232.
7. Moffatt MF, Kabesch M, Liang L, Dixon AL, Strachan D, Heath S et al. Genetic variants regulating ORMDL3 expression contribute to the risk of childhood asthma. Nature 2007 448 : 470 474.
8. Cooper PJ, Chico ME, Rodrigues LC, Ordonez M, Strachan D, Griffin GE et al. Reduced risk of atopy among school age children infected with geohelminth parasites in a rural area of the tropics. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2003 111 : 995 1000.
9. Cooper PJ, Chico ME, Griffin GE, Nutman TB. Allergy symptoms, atopy, and geohelminth infections in a rural area of Ecuador. Am J Resp Crit Care Med 2003 168 : 313 317.
10. Schei MA, Hessen JO, Smith KR, Bruce N, McCracken J, Lopez V. Childhood asthma and indoor woodsmoke from cooking in Guatemala. J Exp Anal Environ Epidemiol 2004 14 : S110 S117.
11. Franco R, Santos AC, do Nascimento HF, Souza-Machado C, Ponte E, Souza-Machado A et al. Cost-effectiveness analysis of a state funded programme for control of severe asthma. BMC Public Health 2007 7 : 82.
12. WHO. Global surveillance, prevention and control of chronic respiratory diseases: a comprehensive approach. Geneva : World Health Organization, 2007 (http://www.who.int/gard/publications/GARD%20Book%202007.pdf).
13. Ponte E, Franco RA, Souza-Machado A, Souza-Machado C, Cruz AA. Impact that a program to control severe asthma has on the use of Unified Health System resources in Brazil. J Bras Pneumol 2007 33 : 15 19.
14. Fischer GB, Camargos PAM, Mocelin HT. The burden of asthma in children: a Latin American perspective. Pediatr Respir Rev 2005 6 : 8 13.
15. Carrasco E. Epidemiologic aspects of asthma in Latin America. Chest 1987 91 : S93 S97.
16. Hijjar MA, Pinheiro Feitosa JV, Gerhardt Filho G. A asma na favela do escondidinho - Município do Rio de Janeiro. Boletim da Campanha Nacional contra a Tuberculose 1988 2 : 53 58.
17. Mallol J, Solé D, Asher I, Clayton T, Stein R, Soto-Quiroz M. Prevalence of asthma symptoms in Latin America: the International Study of asthma and allergies in childhood (ISAAC). Pediatr Pulmonol 2000 30 : 439 444.
18. Weinmayr G, Weiland SK, Björkstén B, Brunekreef B, Büchele G, Cookson WO et al. Atopic sensitization and the international variation in asthma symptom prevalence in children. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2007 176 : 565 574.
19. Pearce N, Ait-Khaled N, Beasley R, Mallol J, Keil U, Mitchell EA et al. Worldwide trends in the prevalence of asthma symptoms: phase three of the International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Childhood (ISAAC). Thorax 2007 62 : 758 766.
20. Hunninghake GM, Weiss ST, Celedón JC. Asthma in Hispanics. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2006 173 : 143 163.
21. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Asthma prevalence and control characteristics by race/ethnicity: United States, 2002. MMWR 2004 53 : 145 148.
22. Sole D, Wandalsen GF, Camelo-Nunes IC, Naspitz C, ISAAC-Brazilian group. Prevalence of symptoms of asthma, rhinitis, and atopic eczema among Brazilian children and adolescents identified by the International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Childhood (ISAAC) - Phase 3. J Pediatr 2006 82 : 341 346.
23. Neffen H, Fritscher C, Schacht FC, Levy G, Chiarella P, Soriano JB et al. Asthma control in Latin America: the Asthma Insights and Reality in Latin America (AIRLA) survey. Rev Panam Salud Publica 2005 17 : 191 197.
24. Dennis R, Caraballo L, García E, Caballero A, Aristizabal G, Córdoba H et al. Asthma and other allergic conditions in Colombia: a study in 6 cities. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 2004 93 : 568 574.
25. Chatkin G, Chatkin JM, Fritscher CC, Cavalet-Blanco D, Bittencourt HR, Sears MR. Asthma mortality in southern Brazil: is there a changing trend? J Asthma 2007 44 : 133 136.
26. Beasley C, Pearce N, Crane J. Worldwide trends in asthma mortality during the twentieth century. In : Sheffer A, editor. Fatal asthma. New York : Marcel Dekker, 1998 : 13 29.
27. United Nations Fund for Population Activities. Population issues - migration and urbanization. http://www.unfpa.org/6billion/populationissues/ migration.htm.
28. Weinberg EG. Urbanization and childhood asthma: an African perspective. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2000 105 : 224 231.
29. Wright RJ. Exploring biopsychosocial influences on asthma expression in both the family and community context. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2008 177 : 129 130.
30. Douwes J, Gibson P, Pekkanen J, Pearce N. Non-eosinophilic asthma: importance and possible mechanisms. Thorax 2002 57 : 643 648.
31. Nicolaou N, Siddique N, Custovic A. Allergic disease in urban and rural populations: increasing prevalence with increasing urbanization. Allergy 2005 60 : 1357 1360.
32. Addo-Yobo EO, Woodcock A, Allotey A, Baffoe-Bonnie B, Strachan D, Custovic A. Exercise-induced bronchospasm and atopy in Ghana: two surveys ten years apart. PLoS Med 2007 4 : e70.
33. Viinanen A, Munhbayarlah S, Zevgee T, Narantsetseg L, Naidansuren TS, Koskenvuo M et al. Prevalence of asthma, allergic rhinoconjunctivitis and allergic sensitization in Mongolia. Allergy 2005 60 : 1370 1377.
34. Gold DR, Acevedo-Garcia D. Immigration to the United States and acculturation as risk factors for asthma and allergy. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2005 116 : 38 41.
35. Eldeirawi K, McConnell R, Freels S, Persky VW. Associations of place of birth with asthma and wheezing in Mexican American children. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2005 116 : 42 48.
36. Holguin F, Mannino DM, Anto J, Mott J, Ford ES, Teague WG et al. Country as birth as a risk factor for asthma among Mexican Americans. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2005 171 : 103 108.
37. Kalyoncu AF. Symptoms of asthma, bronchial responsiveness and atopy in immigrants and emigrants in Europe. Eur Respir J 2002 19 : 980 981.
38. Aberg N, Engstrom I, Lindberg U. Allergic diseases in Swedish school children. Acta Paediatr Scand 1989 78 : 246 252.
39. Nilsson L, Castor O, Lofman O, Magnusson A, Kjellman NIM. Allergic diseases in teenagers in relation to urban or rural residence at various stages of childhood. Allergy 1999 54 : 716 721.
40. Viinanen A, Munhbayarlah S, Zevgee T, Narantsetseg L, Naidansuren TS, Koskenvuo M et al. The protective effect of rural living against atopy in Mongolia. Allergy 2007 62 : 272 280.
41. Cooper PJ, Chico ME, Vaca MG, Rodriguez A, Alcantara-Neves N, Genser B et al. Risk factors for asthma and allergy associated with urban migration: background and methodology of a cross-sectional study in Afro-Ecuadorian school children in Northeastern Ecuador (Esmeraldas-SCAALA Study). BMC Pulm Med 2006 6 : 24.
42. Sears MR, Burrows B, Flannery EM, Herbison GP, Hewitt CJ, Holdaway MD. Relation between airway responsiveness and serum IgE in children with asthma and in apparently normal children. NEJM 1991 325 : 1067 1071.
43. Clifford RD, Pugsley A, Radford M, Holgate ST. Symptoms, atopy, and bronchial response to methacholine in parents with asthma and their children. Arch Dis Child 1987 62 : 66 73.
44. Clifford RD, Howell JB, Radford M, Holgate ST. Associations between respiratory symptoms, bronchial response to methacholine, and atopy in two age groups of schoolchildren. Arch Dis Child 1989 64 : 1133 1139.
45. Witt C, Stuckey MS, Woolcock AJ, Dawkins RL. Positive allergy prick tests associated with bronchial histamine responsiveness in an unselected population. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1986 77 : 698 702.
46. Backer V, Ulrik CS, Hansen KK, Laursen EM, Dirksen A, Bach-Mortensen N. Atopy and bronchial responsiveness in random population sample of 527 children and adolescents. Ann Allergy 1992 69 : 116 122.
47. Court CS, Cook DG, Strachan DP. Comparative epidemiology of atopic and non-atopic wheeze and diagnosed asthma in a national sample of English adults. Thorax 2002 57 : 951 957.
48. Pearce N, Pekkanen J, Beasley R. How much asthma is really attributable to atopy? Thorax 1999 54 : 268 272.
49. Kurukulaaratchy RJ, Matthews S, Arshad SH. Defining childhood atopic phenotypes to investigate the association of atopic sensitization with allergic disease. Allergy 2005 60 : 1280 1286.
50. Pereira MU, Sly PD, Pitrez PM, Jones MH, Escouto D, Dias ACO et al. Nonatopic asthma is associated with helminth infections and bronchiolitis in poor children. Eur Respir J 2007 29 : 1154 1160.
51. Salvi SS, Babu KS, Holgate ST. Is asthma really due to a polarized T cell response toward a helper T cell type 2 phenotype? Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2001 164 : 1343 1346.
52. Sporik R, Holgate ST, Platts-Mills TA, Cogswell JJ. Exposure to house-dust mite allergen (Der p I) and the development of asthma in childhood. A prospective study. NEJM 1990 323 : 502 507.
53. Benício MH, Ferreira MU, Cardoso MR, Konno SC, Monteiro CA. Wheezing conditions in early childhood: prevalence and risk factors in the city of São Paulo, Brazil. Bull World Health Organ 2004 82 : 516 522.
54. Silva JM, Camara AA, Tobias KR, Macedo IS, Cardoso MR, Arruda E et al. A prospective study of wheezing in young children: the independent effects of cockroach exposure, breast-feeding and allergic sensitization. Pediatr Allergy Immunol 2005 16 : 393 401.
55. Mallol J, Castro-Rodriguez JA, Cortez E, Aguirre V, Aguilar P, Barrueto L. Heightened bronchial hyperresponsiveness in the absence of heightened atopy in children with current wheezing and low income status. Thorax 2008 643 : 167 171.
56. Mallol J, Andrade R, Auger F, Rodriguez J, Alvarado R, Figueroa L. Wheezing during the first year of life in infants from low-income population: a descriptive study. Allergol et Immunopathol 2005 33 : 257 263.
57. Penny ME, Murad S, Madrid SS, Herrera TS, Piñeiro A, Caceres DE et al. Respiratory symptoms, asthma, exercise test spirometry, and atopy in schoolchildren from a Lima shanty town. Thorax 2001 56 : 607 612.
58. Soto-Quiros ME, Silverman EK, Hanson LA, Weiss ST, Celedón JC. Maternal history, sensitization to allergens, and current wheezing, rhinitis, and eczema among children in Costa Rica. Pediatr Pulmonol 2002 33 : 237 243.
59. Riedler J, Eder W, Oberfeld G, Schreuer M. Austrian children living on a farm have less hay fever, asthma and allergic sensitization. Clin Exp Allergy 2000 30 : 194 200.
60. Eder W, Ege MJ, von Mutius E. The asthma epidemic. NEJM 2006 355 : 2226 2235.
61. Yemaneberhan H, Bekele Z, Venn A, Lewis S, Parry E, Britton J. Prevalence of wheeze and asthma and relation to atopy in urban and rural Ethiopia. Lancet 1997 350 : 85 90.
62. Cooper PJ, Chico ME, Rodrigues L, Strachan D, Anderson HR, Rodriguez EA et al. Risk factors for atopy among school-age children in a rural region of the Tropics. Clin Exp Allergy 2004 34 : 845 852.
63. Araujo MI, Lopes AA, Medeiros M, Cruz AA, Sousa-Atta L, Solé D et al. Inverse association between skin response to aeroallergens and Schistosoma mansoni infection. Int Arch Allergy Immunol 2000 123 : 145 148.
64. Mallol J. Asthma in the World. Asthma among children in Latin America. Allergol Immunopathol (Madr) 2004 32 : 100 103.
65. Cunha SS, Pujades MR, Barreto ML, Genser B, Rodrigues LC. Ecological study of socio-economic indicators and prevalence of asthma in schoolchildren in urban Brazil. BMC Public Health 2007 7 : 205.
66. Cunha SS, Barreto ML, Rodrigues LC. The importance of research on the association between socioeconomic conditions and asthma. Rev Panam Salud Publica 2007 22 : 438 440.
67. Rona RJ, Hughes JM, Chinn S. Association between asthma and family size between 1977 and 1994. J Epidemiol Community Health 1999 53 : 15 19.
68. Almqvist C, Pershagen G, Wickman M. Low socioeconomic status as a risk factor for asthma, rhinitis and sensitization at 4 years in a birth cohort. Clin Exp Allergy 2005 35 : 612 618.
69. Litonjua AA, Weiss ST. Is vitamin D deficiency to blame for the asthma epidemic? J Allergy Clin Immunol 2007 120 : 1031 1035.
70. Aligne CA, Auinger P, Byrd RS, Weitzman M. Risk factors for pediatric asthma. Contributions of poverty, race, and urban residence. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2000 162 : 873 877.
71. Braback L, Hjern A, Rasmussen F. Social class in asthma and allergic rhinitis: a national cohort over three decades. Eur Respir J 2005 26 : 1 5.
72. Bergmann RL, Edenharter G, Bergmann KE, Lau S, Wahn U. Socioeconomic status is a risk factor for allergy in parents but not in their children. Clin Exp Allergy 2000 30 : 1740 1745.
73. Strachan DP. The role of environmental factors in asthma. Br Med Bull 2000 56 : 865 882.
74. McCreanor J, Cullinan P, Nieuwenhuijsen MJ, Stewart-Evans J, Malliarou E, Jarup L et al. Respiratory effects of exposure to diesel traffic in persons with asthma. NEJM 2007 357 : 2348 2358.
75. Farhat SC, Paulo RL, Shimoda TM, Conceição GM, Lin CA, Braga AL et al. Effect of air pollution on pediatric respiratory emergency room visits and hospital admissions. Braz J Med Biol Res 2005 38 : 227 235.
76. Bell ML, Davis DL, Gouveia N, Borja-Aburto VH, Cifuentes LA. The avoidable health effects of air pollution in three Latin American cities: Santiago, São Paulo, and Mexico City. Environ Res 2006 100 : 431 440.
77. Castillejos M, Gold DR, Dockery C, Tosteson T, Baum T, Speizer FE. Effects of ambient ozone on respiratory function and symptoms in Mexico City schoolchildren. Am Rev Respir Dis 1992 145 : 276 282.
78. Neffen HE. Asthma prevalence and risk factors in Latin America. Curr Allergy Clin Immunol 2007 20 : 8 10.
79. von Mutius E, Martinez FD, Fritzsch C, Nicolai T, Roell G, Thiemann HH. Prevalence of asthma and atopy in two areas of West and East Germany. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1994 149 : 358 364.
80. Gilmour MI, Jaakkola MS, London SJ, Nel AE, Rogers CA. How exposure to environmental tobacco smoke, outdoor air pollutants, and increased pollen burdens influences the incidence of asthma. Environ Health Perspect 2006 114 : 627 633.
81. Sole D, Melo KC, Camelo-Nunes IC, Freitas LS, Britto M, Rosario NA et al. Changes in the prevalence of asthma and allergic diseases among Brazilian schoolchildren (13-14 years old): comparison between ISAAC phases one and three. J Trop Pediatr 2006 53 : 13 21.
82. Fernández-Caldas E, Baena-Cagnani CE, López M, Patiño C, Neffen HE, Sánchez-Medina M et al. Cutaneous sensitivity to six mite species in asthmatic patients from five Latin American countries. J Investig Allergol Clin Immunol 1993 3 : 245 249.
83. Soto-Quiros M, Bustamante M, Gutierrez I, Hanson LA, Strannegård IL, Karlberg J. The prevalence of childhood asthma in Costa Rica. Clin Exp Allergy 1994 24 : 1130 1136.
84. Strachan DP, Cook DG. Health effects of passive smoking. 6. Parental smoking and childhood asthma: longitudinal and case-control studies. Thorax 1998 53 : 214 212.
85. Celedon JC, Soto-Quiros ME, Silverman EK, Hanson L, Weiss ST. Risk factors for childhood asthma in Costa Rica. Chest 2001 120 : 785 790.
86. Barraza Villareal A, Sanin Aguirre LH, Tellez Rojo MM, Lacasana Navarro M, Romieu I. Risk factors for asthma in school children from Cuidad Juarez, Chihuahua. J Asthma 2003 40 : 413 423.
87. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Exposure to secondhand smoke among students aged 13-17 years: worldwide, 2004-2007. MMWR 2007 567 : 497 500.
88. Strachan DP. Hay fever, hygiene, and household size. BMJ 1989 299 : 1259 1260.
89. Braun-Fahrlander C, Lauener R. Farming and protective agents against allergy and asthma. Clin Exp Allergy 2003 33 : 409 411.
90. Cooper PJ, Barreto M, Rodrigues LC. Human allergy and intestinal helminth infections: a review of the literature and discussion of a conceptual model to investigate the possible causal association. Br Med Bull 2006 80 : 203 218.
91. Hagel I, Lynch NR, Pérez M, Di Prisco MC, López R, Rojas E. Modulation of the allergic reactivity of slum children by helminthic infection. Parasite Immunol 1993 15 : 311 315.
92. Rodrigues LC, Newland P, Cunha SS, Genser B, Alcantara-Neves N, Cruz AA et al. Early infections with intestinal helminths reduce the risk of atopy later in childhood. Clin Exp Allergy 2008 38 : 1769 1777.
93. Medeiros M Jr., Figueiredo JP, Almeida MC, Matos MA, Araújo MI, Cruz AA et al. Schistosoma mansoni infection is associated with a reduced course of asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2003 111 : 947 951.
94. Lynch NR, Palenque M, Hagel I, DiPrisco MC. Clinical improvement of asthma after anthelminthic treatment in a tropical situation. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1997 156 : 50 54.
95. Palmer LJ, Celedón JC, Weiss ST, Wang B, Fang Z, Xu X. Ascaris lumbricoides infection is associated with increased risk of childhood asthma and atopy in rural China. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2002 165 : 1489 1493.
96. Hunninghake GM, Soto-Quiros ME, Avila L, Ly NP, Liang C, Sylvia JS et al. Sensitization to Ascaris lumbricoides and severity of childhood asthma in Costa Rica. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2007 119 : 654 661.
97. Takeuchi H, Zaman K, Takahashi J, Yunus M, Chowdhury HR, Arifeen SE et al. High titre of anti-Ascaris immunoglobulin E associated with bronchial asthma symptoms in 5-year-old rural Bangladeshi children. Clin Exp Allergy 2008 38 : 276 282.
98. Hagel I, Cabrera M, Hurtado MA, Sanchez P, Puccio F, Di Prisco MC et al. Infection by Ascaris lumbricoides and bronchial hyper reactivity: an outstanding association in Venezuelan school children from endemic areas. Acta Trop 2007 103 : 231 241.
99. Cooper PJ. Toxocara canis infection: an important and neglected risk factor for asthma? Clin Exp Allergy 2008 38 : 551 553.
100. Ferreira MU, Rubinsky-Elefant G, Gontijo de Castro T, Hoffmann EHE, da Silva-Nunes M, Cardoso MG et al. Bottle feeding and exposure to Toxocara as risk factors for wheezing illness among under-five Amazonian children: a population-based cross-sectional study. J Trop Ped 2007 53 : 119 124.
101. Filozov C, Gonzalez C, Sereday M, Mazza C, Braguinsky J. Obesity prevalence and trends in Latin-American countries. Obes Rev 2001 2 : 99 106.
102. Devereux G, Seaton A. Diet as a risk factor for atopy and asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2005 115 : 1109 1117.
103. Bermudez OI, Tucker KL. Trends in dietary patterns of Latin American populations. Cad Saude Publica 2003 19 : S87 S99.
104. Schaub B, von Mutius E. Obesity and asthma, what are the links? Curr Opin Allergy Clin Immunol 2005 5 : 185 193.
105. Chinn S, Rona RJ. Can the increase in body mass index explain the rising trend in asthma in children? Thorax 2001 56 : 845 850.
106. Bustos P, Amigo H, Oyarzun M, Rona RJ. Is there a causal relation between obesity and asthma? Evidence from Chile. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 2005 29 : 804 809.
107. Del-Rio-Navarro BE, Fanghanel G, Berber A, Sanchez-Reyes L, Estrada-Reyes E, Sienra-Mongre JJ. The relationship between asthma symptoms and anthropometric markers of overweight in a Hispanic population. J Investig Allergol Clin Immunol 2003 13 : 118 123.
108. Santillan AA, Camargo CA. Body mass index and asthma among Mexican adults: the effect of using self-reported vs measured weight and height. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 2003 27 : 1430 1433.
109. Platts-Mills TAE, Sporik RB, Chapman MD, Heymann PW. The role of domestic allergens. In : Chadwick D, Cardew G, editors. The rising trends in asthma. West Sussex, UK : John Wiley and Sons Ltd, 1997 : 173 185.
110. Choudhry S, Seibold MA, Borrell LN, Tang H, Serebrisky D, Chapela R et al. Dissecting complex diseases in complex populations: asthma in Latino Americans. Proc Am Thorac Soc 2007 4 : 226 233.
111. Salari K, Burchard EG. Latino populations: a unique opportunity for epidemiological research of asthma. Paediatr Perinatal Epidemiol 2007 21 : S15 S22.
112. Salari K, Choudhry S, Tang H, Naqvi M, Lind D, Avila PC et al. Genetic admixture and asthma-related phenotypes in Mexican American and Puerto Rican asthmatics. Genet Epidemiol 2005 29 : 76 86.
113. Choudhry S, Coyle NE, Tang H, Salari K, Lind D, Clark SL et al. Population stratification confounds genetic association studies among Latinos. Hum Genet 2006 118 : 652 664.
114. Barreto ML, Cunha SS, Alcântara-Neves N, Carvalho LP, Cruz AA, Stein RT et al. Risk factors and immunological pathways for asthma and other allergic diseases in children: background and methodology of a longitudinal study in a large urban center in Northeastern Brazil (Salvador-SCAALA study). BMC Pulm Med 2006 6 : 15.