Affective Divergence: Automatic Responses to Others' Emotions Depend on Group Membership

Journal of Personality and Social Psychology

Volumn 95, Issue 5, 2008, Pages 1063-1079

  Weisbuch, Max ^a   Ambady, Nalini ^a  

^a TUFTS UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

affective priming; automaticity; emotion expression; emotion recognition; nonverbal behavior

Indexed keywords

AFFECT; AROUSAL; ARTICLE; CAUCASIAN; DECISION MAKING; EMOTION; FACIAL EXPRESSION; FEAR; FEMALE; HAPPINESS; HUMAN; HUMAN RELATION; INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION; MALE; NEGRO; PERCEPTION; PERCEPTIVE THRESHOLD; PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT; SOCIAL BEHAVIOR; SOCIAL DOMINANCE; SPEECH; SPEECH PERCEPTION;

AFFECT; AFRICAN CONTINENTAL ANCESTRY GROUP; AROUSAL; COMMUNICATION; DECISION MAKING; EMOTIONS; EUROPEAN CONTINENTAL ANCESTRY GROUP; FACIAL EXPRESSION; FEAR; FEMALE; HAPPINESS; HUMANS; INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS; MALE; SOCIAL DOMINANCE; SOCIAL IDENTIFICATION; SOCIAL PERCEPTION; SPEECH ACOUSTICS; SPEECH PERCEPTION; SUBLIMINAL STIMULATION;

EID: 56349164170     PISSN: 00223514     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1037/a0011993     Document Type: Article

References (74)

1. Adolphs R., Tranel D., Hamann S., Young A.W., Calder A.J., Phelps E.A., et al. Recognition of facial emotion in nine individuals with bilateral amygdala damage. Neuropsychologica 37 (1999) 1111-1117
2. Aiken L.S., and West S.G. Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions (1991), Sage, Newbury Park, CA
3. Bargh J.A. The four horsemen of automaticity: Awareness, efficiency, intention, and control in social cognition. In: Wyer Jr. R.S., and Srull T.K. (Eds). Handbook of social cognition. 2nd ed. (1994), Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ 1-40
4. Bargh J.A., Chaiken S., Raymond P., and Hymes C. The automatic evaluation effect: Unconditional automatic attitude activation with a pronunciation task. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 32 (1996) 185-210
5. Baron R.M., and Kenny D.A. The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 51 (1986) 1173-1182
6. Beaupre M., and Hess U. Cross-cultural emotion recognition among Canadian ethnic groups. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 36 (2005) 355-370
7. Berkowitz L. On the formation and regulation of anger and aggression: A cognitive-neoassociationistic analysis. American Psychologist 45 (1990) 494-503
8. Buck R. The communication of emotion (1984), Guilford Press, New York
9. Cosmides L., Tooby J., and Kurzban R. Perceptions of race. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 7 (2003) 173-179
10. Devine P.G. Stereotypes and prejudice: Their automatic and controlled components. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 56 (1989) 5-18
11. Devine P.G., Plant E.A., Amodio D.M., Harmon-Jones E., and Vance S.L. The regulation of explicit and implicit race bias: The role of motivations to respond without prejudice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 82 (2002) 835-848
12. Dimberg U. Psychophysiological reactions to facial expressions. In: Segerstrale U., and Molnar P. (Eds). Nonverbal communication: Where nature meets culture (1997), Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ 47-60
13. Dimberg U., Thunberg M., and Elmehed K. Unconscious facial reactions to emotional facial expressions. Psychological Science 11 (2000) 86-89
14. Dovidio J., Kawakami K., Johnson C., Johnson B., and Howard A. On the nature of prejudice: Automatic and controlled processes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 33 (1997) 510-540
15. Efron B., and Tibshirani R.J. An introduction to the bootstrap (1993), Chapman & Hall, Boca Raton, FL
16. Ekman P. Are there basic emotions?. Psychological Review 99 (1992) 550-553
17. Ekman P., and Friesen W.V. Nonverbal leakage and cues to deception. Psychiatry 32 (1969) 88-106
18. Elfenbein H.A., and Ambady N. On the universality and cultural specificity of emotion recognition: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin 128 (2002) 203-235
19. Fazio R.H. On the automatic activation of associated evaluations: An overview. Cognition & Emotion 15 (2001) 115-141
20. Fazio R.H., Jackson J.R., Dunton B.C., and Williams C.J. Variability in automatic activation as an unobtrusive measure of racial attitudes: A bona fide pipeline?. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 69 (1995) 1013-1027
21. Fazio R.H., Sanbonmatsu D.M., Powell M.C., and Kardes F.R. On the automatic activation of attitudes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 50 (1986) 229-238
22. Gibson J.J. The ecological approach to visual perception (1979), Houghton Mifflin, Wilmington, MA
23. Gordijn E., Wigboldus D., and Yzerbyt V.Y. Emotional consequences of categorizing victims of negative outgroup behavior as ingroup or outgroup. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations 4 (2001) 317-326
24. Hariri A.R., Tessitore A., Mattay V.S., Fera F., and Weinberger D.R. The amygdala to emotional stimuli: A comparison of faces and scenes. NeuroImage 17 (2002) 317-323
25. Hatfield J.T., Cacioppo J.C., and Rapson R.L. Emotional contagion (1994), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England
26. Hirt E.R., Zillmann D., Erickson G.A., and Kennedy C. Costs and benefits of allegiance: Changes in fans' self-described competences after team victory versus defeat. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 63 (1994) 724-738
27. Hugenberg K. Social categorization and the perception of facial affect: Target race moderates the response latency advantage for happy faces. Emotion 5 (2005) 267-276
28. Hugenberg K., and Bodenhausen G.V. Facing prejudice: Implicit prejudice and the perception of facial threat. Psychological Science 14 (2003) 640-643
29. Izard C.E. Four systems for emotion activation: Cognitive and noncognitive processes. Psychological Review 100 (1993) 68-90
30. Jarvis B.G. MediaLab (Version 2006.1.41) [Computer software] (2006), Empirisoft Corporation, New York
31. Johnson J.D., Trawalter S., and Dovidio J.F. Converging interracial consequences of exposure to violent rap music on stereotypical attributions of Blacks. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 36 (2000) 233-251
32. Knutson B. Facial expressions of emotion influence interpersonal trait inferences. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior 20 (1996) 165-182
33. Lang P.J., Bradley M.M., and Cuthbert B.N. International affective picture system (IAPS): Instruction manual and affective ratings (1999) University of Florida, The Center for Research in Psychophysiology
34. Lazarus R. Universal antecedents of the emotions. In: Ekman P., and Davidson R. (Eds). The nature of emotion: Fundamental questions (1994), Oxford University Press, New York 163-171
35. Leach C.W., Spears R., Branscombe N.R., and Doosje B. Malicious pleasure: Schadenfreude at the suffering of another group. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 84 (2003) 932-943
36. LeDoux J.E. Emotion: Clues from the brain. Annual Review of Psychology 46 (1995) 209-235
37. LeDoux J.E. The emotional brain (1996), Simon & Schuster, New York
38. Liddell B.J., Brown K.J., Kemp A.H., Barton M.J., Das P., Pedutao A., et al. A direct brainstem-amygdala-cortical 'alarm' system for subliminal signals of fear. NeuroImage 24 (2005) 235-243
39. Lowery B.S., Hardin C.D., and Sinclair S. Social influence effects on automatic racial prejudice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 81 (2001) 842-855
40. Macrae C.N., and Bodenhausen G.V. Social cognition: Thinking categorically about others. Annual Review of Psychology 51 (2000) 93-120
41. Marsh A.A., Ambady N., and Kleck R.E. The effects of fear and anger facial expressions on approach- and avoidance-related behaviors. Emotion 5 (2005) 119-124
42. Matsumoto D., and Ekman P. Japanese and Caucasian Facial Expressions of Emotion (JACFEE) (1988), Author, San Francisco
43. Mauchly J.W. Significance test for sphericity of a normal n-variate distribution. The Annals of Mathematical Statistics 11 (1940) 204-209
44. McArthur L.Z., and Baron R.M. Toward an ecological theory of social perception. Psychological Review 90 (1983) 215-238
45. Montepare J.M., and Dobish H. The contribution of emotion perceptions and their overgeneralizations to trait impressions. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior 27 (2003) 237-254
46. Moyer K.W. The psychobiology of aggression (1976), Harper & Row, New York
47. Murphy S.T., and Zajonc R.B. Affect, cognition, and awareness: Affective priming with optimal and suboptimal stimulus exposures. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 64 (1993) 723-739
48. Neely J.H. Semantic priming and retrieval from lexical memory: Roles of inhibitionless spreading activation and limited-capacity attention. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 106 (1977) 226-254
49. Neumann R., and Strack F. Mood contagion: The automatic transfer of mood between persons. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 79 (2000) 211-223
50. Öhman A. Automaticity and the amygdala: Nonconscious responses to emotional faces. Current Directions in Psychological Science 11 (2002) 62-65
51. Öhman A., and Mineka S. Fears, phobias, and preparedness: Toward an evolved model of fears and fear learning. Psychological Review 108 (2001) 483-522
52. Pettigrew T.F. The ultimate attribution error: Extending Allport's cognitive analysis of prejudice. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 5 (1979) 461-476
53. Plant E.A., Kling K.C., and Smith G.L. The influence of gender and social role on the interpretation of facial expressions. Sex Roles 51 (2004) 187-196
54. Plous S., and Williams T. Racial stereotypes from the days of American slavery: A continuing legacy. Journal of Applied Social Psychology 25 (1995) 795-817
55. Preacher K.J., and Hayes A.F. SPSS and SAS procedures for estimating indirect effects in simple mediation models. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers 36 (2004) 717-731
56. Ravaja N., Kallinen K., Saari T., and Keltikangas-Jarvinen L. Suboptimal exposure to facial expressions when viewing video messages from a small screen: Effects on emotion, attention, and memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied 10 (2004) 120-131
57. Rosenthal R. The file-drawer problem and tolerance for null results. Psychological Bulletin 86 (1979) 638-641
58. Rosenthal R., and DePaulo B.M. Sex differences in eavesdropping on nonverbal cues. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 37 (1979) 273-285
59. Russell J.A., Bachorowski J., and Fernández-Dols J. Facial and vocal expressions of emotion. Annual Review of Psychology 54 (2003) 329-439
60. Ruys K.I., Spears R., Gordijn E.H., and de Vries N.K. Automatic contrast: Evidence that automatic comparison with the social self affects evaluative responses. British Journal of Psychology 98 (2007) 361-374
61. Schachter S. The psychology of affiliation (1959), University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis
62. Shrout P.E., and Bolger N. Mediation in experimental and nonexperimental studies: New procedures and recommendations. Psychological Methods 11 (2002) 87-105
63. Sinclair S., Lowery B.S., Hardin C.D., and Colangelo A. Social tuning of automatic racial attitudes: The role of affiliative motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 89 (2005) 583-592
64. Sonnby-Borgstrom M., Jonsson P., and Svennson O. Emotional empathy as related to mimicry reactions at different levels of information processing. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior 27 (2003) 3-23
65. Stapel D.A., Koomen W., and Ruys K.I. The effects of diffuse and distinct affect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 83 (2002) 60-74
66. Tajfel H. Differentiation between social groups: Studies in the social psychology of intergroup relations (1978), Academic Press, New York
67. Tajfel H., and Billig M. Familiarity and categorization in intergroup behavior. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 10 (1974) 159-170
68. Tajfel H., and Turner J.C. The social identity theory of intergroup behavior. In: Worchel S., and Austin W. (Eds). Psychology of intergroup relations (1986), Nelson-Hall, Chicago 7-24
69. Thibault P., Bourgeois P., and Hess U. The effect of group identification on emotion recognition: The case of cats and basketball players. Journal of Experimental and Social Psychology 42 (2006) 676-683
70. Tottenham, N., Borscheid, A., Ellertsen, K., Marcus, D. J., & Nelson, C. A. (2002, April). Categorization of facial expressions in children and adults: Establishing a larger stimulus set. Poster presented at the Cognitive Neuroscience Society annual meeting, San Francisco.
71. Turner J.C., Hogg M.A., Oakes P.J., Reicher S.D., and Wetherell M.S. Rediscovering the social group: A self-categorization theory (1987), Basil Blackwell Publishers, Oxford, England
72. van Kleef G.A., De Dreu C.K.W., and Manstead A.S.R. The interpersonal effects of anger and happiness in negotiations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 86 (2004) 57-76
73. Whalen P.J., Rauch S.L., Etcoff N.L., McInerney S.C., Lee M.B., and Jenike M.A. Masked presentations of emotional facial expressions modulate amygdala activity without explicit knowledge. The Journal of Neuroscience 18 (1998) 411-418
74. Zebrowitz L.A. Overgeneralization effects in perceiving nonverbal behavior: Evolutionary and ecological origins. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior 27 (2003) 133-138