Evaluation and treatment of thyroid nodules: A clinical guide

Mount Sinai Journal of Medicine

Volumn 75, Issue 3, 2008, Pages 299-311

  Galofré, Juan C ^a,b   Lomvardias, Stylianos ^a   Davies, Terry F ^a  

^a VETERANS AFFAIRS MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY CLINIC OF NAVARRA   (Spain)

Author keywords

Benign; Diagnosis; Malignant; Management; Multinodular; Nodules; Thyroid; Treatment

Indexed keywords

ALCOHOL; B RAF KINASE; CALCITONIN; IODINE 131; LEVOTHYROXINE; RADIOACTIVE IODINE; RECOMBINANT THYROTROPIN; THYROGLOBULIN; THYROID ANTIBODY; THYROTROPIN; THYROXINE; TUMOR MARKER;

AGE; ASPIRATION BIOPSY; BONE DISEASE; COMPUTER ASSISTED TOMOGRAPHY; CYTODIAGNOSIS; CYTOLOGY; DIAGNOSTIC ACCURACY; ECHOGRAPHY; ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR; FAMILY HISTORY; FOLLICULAR CARCINOMA; FOLLOW UP; GRAVES DISEASE; HEART ARRHYTHMIA; HUMAN; HYPERTHYROIDISM; LOW LEVEL LASER THERAPY; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; POSITRON EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY; PREVALENCE; REVIEW; SENSITIVITY AND SPECIFICITY; SEX DIFFERENCE; THYROGLOBULIN BLOOD LEVEL; THYROID ADENOMA; THYROID CANCER; THYROID FUNCTION; THYROID FUNCTION TEST; THYROID NODULE; THYROID SCINTISCANNING; THYROIDECTOMY; THYROTROPIN BLOOD LEVEL;

AUTOANTIBODIES; HUMANS; THYROID FUNCTION TESTS; THYROID GLAND; THYROID NODULE;

EID: 55449112663     PISSN: 00272507     EISSN: 19317581     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/msj.20040     Document Type: Review

References (61)

1. Gharib H, Papini E. Thyroid nodules: clinical importance, assessment, and treatment. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 2007; 36: 707-735.
2. The thyroid neck check. Available at: http://www.thyroidawareness.com. Accessed April 2008.
3. Davies T. Personalized thyroid medicine - the time is now. Thyroid 2007; 17: 1.
4. Mazzaferri EL. Management of a solitary thyroid nodule. N Engl J Med 1993; 328: 553-559.
5. Cooper DS, Doherty GM, Haugen BR, et al. Management guidelines for patients with thyroid nodules and differentiated thyroid cancer. Thyroid 2006; 16: 109-142.
6. Reiners C, Wegscheider K, Schicha H, et al. Prevalence of thyroid disorders in the working population of Germany: ultrasonography screening in 96,278 unselected employees. Thyroid 2004; 14; 926-932.
7. Burguera B, Gharib H. Thyroid incidentalomas. Prevalence, diagnosis, significance, and management. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 2000; 29: 187-203.
8. Frates MC, Benson CB, Doubilet PM, et al. Prevalence and distribution of carcinoma in patients with solitary and multiple thyroid nodules on sonography. J. Clin Endocrinol Metab 2006; 91: 3411-3417.
9. Knudsen N, Laurberg P, Perrild H, et al. Risk factors for goiter and thyroid nodules. Thyroid 2002; 12: 879-888.
10. Kondo T, Ezzat S, Asa SL. Pathogenetic mechanisms in thyroid follicular-cell neoplasia. Nat Rev Cancer 2006; 6: 292-306.
11. Vassart G. Activating mutations of the TSH receptor. Thyroid 2004; 14: 86-87.
12. Kimura T, Van Keymeulen A, Golstein J, et al. Regulation of thyroid cell proliferation by TSH and other factors: a critical evaluation of in vitro models. Endocr Rev 2001; 22: 631-656.
13. Krohn K, Führer D, Bayer Y, et al. Molecular pathogenesis of euthyroid and toxic multinodular goiter. Endocr Rev 2005; 26: 504-524.
14. Alexander EK, Hurwitz S, Heering JP, et al. Natural history of benign solid and cystic thyroid nodules. Ann Intern Med 2003; 138: 315-318.
15. Erdogan MY, Gursoy A, Erdogan G. Natural course of benign thyroid nodules in a moderately iodinedeficient area. Clin Endocrinol 2006; 65: 167-771.
16. Hegedus L, Bonnema SJ, Bennedbaek FN. Management of simple nodular goiter: current status and future perspectives. Endocr Rev 2003; 24: 102-132.
17. Pacini F, Schlumberger M, Dralle H, et al. European consensus for the management of patients with differentiated thyroid carcinoma of the follicular epithelium. Eur J Endocrinol 2006; 154: 787-803.
18. Davies TF. Is consensus a good thing in the management of thyroid nodules? Thyroid 2006; 16: 205.
19. Burman KD. Micropapillary thyroid cancer: should we aspirate all nodules regardless of size? J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2006; 91: 2043-2046.
20. Pardal R, Clarke MY, Morrison SJ. Applying the principles of stem-cell biology to cancer. Nat Rev Cancer 2003; 3: 895-902.
21. Mitsutake N, Iwao, A, Nagai K, et al. Characterization of side population in thyroid cancer cell lines: cancer stem-like cells are enriched partly but not exclusively. Endocrinology 2007; 148: 1797-1803.
22. Nam-Goong IS, Kim HY, Gong G, et al. Ultrasonography-guided fine-needle aspiration of thyroid incidentaloma: correlation with pathological findings. Clin Endocrinol 2004; 60: 21-28.
23. Herraiz M, Barbesino G, Faquin W, et al. Prevalence of thyroid cancer in familial adenomatous polyposis syndrome and the role of screening ultrasound examinations. Clin Gastroenteral Hepatol 2007; 5: 367-373.
24. Galofre JC. Management of subclinical hyperthyroidism. Rev Med Univ Navarra 2007; 51: 18-22.
25. Kraiem Z, Glaser B, Yigla M, et al. Toxic multinodular goiter: a variant of autoinimune hyperthyroidism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1987; 65: 659-664.
26. Boelaert K, Horacek J, Holder RL, et al. Serum thyrotropin concentration as a novel predictor of malignancy in thyroid nodules investigated by fineneedle aspiration. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2006; 91: 4295-4301.
27. Vierhapper H, Niederle B, Bieglmayer C, et al. Early diagnosis and curative therapy of medullary thyroid carcinoma by routine measurement of serum calcitonin in patients with thyroid disorders. Thyroid 2005; 15: 1267-1272.
28. Elisei R, Bottici V, Luchetti F, et al. Impact of routine measurement of serum calcitonin on the diagnosis and outcome of medullary thyroid cancer: experience in 10,864 patients with nodular thyroid disorders. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2004; 89: 163-168.
29. Baker JR Jr, Fosso CK. Immunological aspects of cancers arising from thyroid follicular cells. Endocr Rev 1993; 14: 729-746.
30. Matsubayashi S, Kawai K, Matsumoto Y, et al. The correlation between papillary thyroid carcinoma and lymphocytic infiltration in the thyroid gland. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1995; 80: 3421-3424.
31. Frates MC, Benson CB, Charboneau JW, et al. Management of thyroid nodules detected at US: Society of Radiologists in Ultrasound consensus conference statement. Radiology 2005; 237: 794-800.
32. Rajatanavin R, Safran M, Stoller WA, et al. Five patients with iodine-induced hyperthyroidism. Am J Med 1984; 77: 378-834.
33. Kim JM, Ryu JS, Kim TY, et al. 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography does not predict malignancy in thyroid nodules cytologically diagnosed as follicular neoplasm. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2007; 92:1630-1634.
34. Castro MR, Gharib H. Continuing controversies in the management of thyroid nodules. Ann Intern Med 2005; 142: 926-931.
35. Oertel YC. Unsatisfactory (vs. nondiagnostic) thyroidal aspirates: a semantic issue? Diagn Cytopathol 2006; 34: 87-88.
36. Oertel YC. Cytopathology reports from fine needle aspirations of the thyroid gland: can they be improved? Thyroid 2007; 17: 33-35.
37. Kelman AS, Rathan A, Leibowitz J, et al. Thyroid cytology and the risk of malignancy in thyroid nodules: importance of nuclear atypia in indeterminate specimens. Thyroid 2001; 11: 271-277.
38. Illouz F, Rodien P, Saint-Andre JP, et al. Usefulness of repeated fine-needle cytology in the follow-up of nonoperated thyroid nodules. Eur J Endocrinol 2007; 156: 303-308.
39. Oertel YC, Miyahara-Felipe L, Mendoza MG, Yu K. Value of repeated fine needle aspirations of the thyroid: an analysis of over ten thousand FNAs. Thyroid 2007; 17: 1061-1066.
40. Haugen BR, Woodmansee WW, McDermott MT. Towards improving the utility of fine-needle aspiration biopsy for the diagnosis of thyroid tumours. Clin Endocrinol 2002; 56: 281-290.
41. Ying M. BRAF mutation in thyroid cancer. Endocr Relat Cancer 2005; 12: 245-262.
42. Foukakis T, Gusnanto A, Au AY, et al. A PCR-based expression signature of malignancy in follicular thyroid tumors. Endocr Relat Cancer 2007; 14: 381-391.
43. Delys L, Detours V, Franc B, et al. Gene expression and the biological phenotype of papillary thyroid carcinomas. Oncogene 2007; 26: 7894-7903.
44. Bonnema SJ, Bennedbaek FN, Wiersinga WM, Hegedus L. Management of the nontoxic multinodular goitre: a European questionnaire study. Clin Endocrinol 2000; 53: 5-12.
45. Bennedbaek FN, Hegedus L. Management of the solitary thyroid nodule: results of a North American survey. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2000; 85: 2493-2498.
46. Bennedbaek FN, Perrild H, Hegedus L. Diagnosis and treatment of the solitary thyroid nodule. Results of a European survey. Clin Endocrinol 1999; 50: 357-363.
47. Bhagat MC Dhaliwal SS, Bonnema SJ, et al. Differences between endocrine surgeons and endocrinologists in the management of non-toxic multinodular, goitre. Br J Surg 2003, 90: 1103-1112.
48. Diehl LA, Garcia V, Bonneffia SJ, et al. Management of the nontoxic multinodular goiter in Latin America: comparison with North America and Europe, an electronic survey. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2005; 90: 117-123.
49. Walsh JP, Ryan SA, Lisewski D, et al. Differences between endocrinologists and endocrine surgeons in management of the solitary thyroid nodule. Clin Endocrinol 2007; 66: 844-853.
50. Weetman AP. Radioiodine treatment for benign thyroid diseases. Clin Endocrinol 2007; 66: 757-764.
51. Hegedus L. The thyroid nodule. N Engl J Med 2004; 351: 1764-1771.
52. Albino CC, Mesa CO Jr, Olandoski M, et al. Recombinant human thyrotropin as adjuvant in the treatment of multinodular goiters with radioiodine. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2005; 90: 2775-2780.
53. Read CH Jr, Tansey MJ, Menda Y. A 36-year retrospective analysis of the efficacy and safety of radioactive iodine in treating young Graves' patients. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2004; 89: 4229-4233.
54. Nielsen VE, Bonnema SJ, Hegedus L. The effects of recombinant human thyrotropin, in normal subjects and patients with goitre. Clin Endocrinol 2004; 61: 655-663.
55. Sdano MT, Falciglia M, Welge JA, Steward DL. Efficacy of thyroid hormone suppression for benign thyroid nodules: meta-analysis of randomized trials. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2005; 133: 391-396.
56. Koc M, Ersoz HO, Akpinar I, et al. Effect of low and high-dose levothyroxine on thyroid nodule volume: a crossover placebo-controlled trial. Clin Endocrinol 2002; 57: 621-628.
57. Mandel SJ, Brent GA, Larsen PR. Levothyroxine therapy in patients with thyroid disease. Ann Intern Med 1993; 119: 492-502.
58. Del Prete S, Caraglia M, Russo D, et al. Percutaneous ethanol injection efficacy in the treatment of large symptomatic thyroid cystic nodules: ten-year follow-up of a large series. Thyroid 2002; 12: 815-821.
59. Dossing H, Bennedbaek FN, Karstrup S, Hegedus L. Benign solitary solid cold thyroid nodules: US-guided interstitial laser photocoagulation-initial experience. Radiology 2002; 225: 53-57.
60. Dossing H, Bennedbaek FN, Bonnema SJ, et al. Randomized prospective study comparing a single radioiodine dose and a single laser therapy session in autonomously functioning thyroid nodules. Eur J Endocrinol 2007; 157: 95-100.
61. Davies TF, Schwartz AE. Thyroid nodules: malignant or benign? Acute Care Med 1985; 36-45.