The Master Settlement Agreement and visual imagery of cigarette advertising in two popular youth magazines

Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly

Volumn 85, Issue 2, 2008, Pages 331-352

  Sung, Yongjun ^a   Hennink Kaminski, Heidi J ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS AT AUSTIN   (United States)

^b University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ADVERTISING; MEDIA ROLE; SMOKING; TOBACCO; VISUALIZATION; YOUNG POPULATION;

NICOTIANA TABACUM;

EID: 54749090090     PISSN: 10776990     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/107769900808500207     Document Type: Article

References (97)

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2. Dean M. Krugman, William H. Quinn, Yongjun Sung, and Margaret Morrison, "Understanding the Role of Cigarette Promotion and Youth Smoking in a Changing Marketing Environment," Journal of Health Communication 10 (April/May 2005): 261-78.
3. See, for example, John P. Pierce, L. Lee, and Elizabeth A. Gilpin, "Smoking Initiation by Adolescent Girls, 1944 through 1988: An Association with Targeted Advertising," Journal of the American Medical Association 271 (February 1994): 608-11;
4. John P. Pierce, Won S. Choi, Elizabeth A. Gilpin, Arthur J. Farkas, and Charles C. Berry, "Tobacco Industry Promotion of Cigarettes and Adolescent Smoking," Journal of the American Medical Association 279 (February 1998): 511-15;
5. Caroline Schooler, Ellen Feighery, and June A. Flora, "Seventh Graders' Self-Reported Exposure to Cigarette Marketing and Its Relationship to Their Smoking Behavior," American Journal of Public Health 86 (September 1996): 1215-21.
6. Joel B. Cohen, "Playing to Win: Marketing and Public Policy at Odds over Joe Camel," Journal of Public Policy and Marketing 18 (fall 2000): 155-67.
7. John P. Pierce, Won S. Choi, Elizabeth A. Gilpin, Arthur J. Farkas, and Charles C. Berry, "Tobacco Industry Promotion of Cigarettes and Adolescent Smoking," Journal of the American Medical Association 279 (February 1998): 511-15.
8. Master Settlement Agreement (November 23, 1998). The intent of the MSA was to recover Medicaid expenses related to the harmful effects of smoking, as well as to penalize the companies for deceptive marketing practices. As a result of the settlement, the tobacco industry agreed to pay $206 billion to forty-six states over twenty-five years to settle lawsuits, including $250 million over ten years to reduce teen smoking and to meet strict goals for reducing smoking overall within the United States. However, the MSA failed to specifically address Internet advertising, in-store displays, or other forms of sales promotion.
9. The 1998 Master Settlement Agreement did not include restrictions on promotional allowances or retail value-added products, marketing efforts that reach youth within retail environments. The FTC found that tobacco advertising and promotional expenses rose to $8.24 billion in 1999, up 22.3% from 1998, the highest level ever, and that increases in expenditures for promotional allowances and retail value-added products accounted for virtually the entire overall rise in spending (Federal Trade Commission, Cigarette Report for 1999, Doc. No. 002-3207, March 13, 2001).
10. Master Settlement Agreement (November 23, 1998).
11. Karen Whitehill King, Leonard N. Reid, Young Sook Moon, and Debra Jones Ringold, "Changes in the Visual Imagery of Cigarette Ads, 1954-1986," Journal of Public Policy and Marketing 10 (spring 1991): 63-80.
12. For a review, see Cheryl L. Albright, David G. Altman, Michael D. Slater, and Nathan Maccoby, "Cigarette Advertisements in Magazines: Evidence for A Differential Focus on Women's and Youth Magazines," Health Education Quarterly 15 (2, 1988): 225-33;
13. David G. Altman, Michael D. Slater, Cheryl L. Albright, and Nathan Maccoby, "How An Unhealthy Product Is Sold: Cigarette Advertising in Magazines, 1960-1985," Journal of Communication 37 (autumn 1987): 95-106;
14. Michael D. Basil, Caroline Schooler, David G. Altman, Michael Slater, Cheryl L. Albright, and Nathan Maccoby, "How Cigarettes Are Advertised in Magazines: Special Messages for Special Markets," Health Communication 3 (2, 1991): 75-91;
15. King et al., "Changes in the Visual Imagery of Cigarette Ads, 1954-1986."
16. See, for example, Krugman and King, "Teenage Exposure to Cigarette Advertising in Popular Consumer Magazines";
17. Krugman et al., "Understanding the Role of Cigarette Promotion and Youth Smoking in a Changing Marketing Environment";
18. Charles King III and Michael Siegel, "The Master Settlement Agreement with the Tobacco Industry and Cigarette Advertising in Magazines," The New England Journal of Medicine 345 (August 2001): 504-11.
19. Federal Register (August 11, 1995). Department of Health and Human Services. Food and Drug Administration. [Docket No. 95N-0253]. Regulations Restricting the Sale and Distribution of Cigarettes and Smokeless Tobacco Products to Protect Children and Adolescents, 60(155).
20. See, for example, Charles King III, Michael Siegel, Carolyn Celebucki, and Gregory N. Connolly, "Adolescent Exposure to Cigarette Advertising in Magazines: An Evaluation of Brand-Specific Advertising in Relation to Youth Readership," Journal of American Medical Association 279 (February 1998): 516-20;
21. Krugman and King, "Teenage Exposure to Cigarette Advertising in Popular Consumer Magazines."
22. King et al., "Adolescent Exposure to Cigarette Advertising in Magazines: An Evaluation of Brand-Specific Advertising in Relation to Youth Readership."
23. Dean M. Krugman, Margaret Morrison, and Yongjun Sung, "Cigarette Advertising in Popular Youth and Adult Magazines: A Ten-Year Perspective," Journal of Public Policy and Marketing 25 (fall 2006): 197-211.
24. Krugman et al., "Understanding the Role of Cigarette Promotion and Youth Smoking in a Changing Marketing Environment."
25. Diane Turner-Bowker and William L. Hamilton, Cigarette Advertising Expenditures Before and After the Master Settlement Agreement: Preliminary Findings, May 15, 2000 (Boston: Massachusetts Department of Public Health, 2000).
26. Paul J. Chung, Craig E Garfield, Paul J. Rathouz, Diane S. Lauderdale, Dana Best, and John Lantos, "Youth Targeting by Tobacco Manufacturers Since the Master Settlement Agreement," Health Affairs 21 (2, 2002): 254-63.
27. Michael S. Wilkes and Robert A. Bell, "Direct-to-Consumer Prescription Drug Advertising: Trends, Impact, and Implications," Health Affairs 19 (March/April 2000):110-28.
28. Krugman et al., "Understanding the Role of Cigarette Promotion and Youth Smoking in a Changing Marketing Environment."
29. Albert Bandura, "Social Cognitive Theory of Mass Communication," in Media Effects: Advances in Theory and Research, ed. Jennings Bryant and Dolf Zillmann (New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1994).
30. For example, Caroline Schooler, Michael D. Basil, and David G. Altman, "Alcohol and Cigarette Advertising on Billboards: Targeting with Social Cues," Health Communication 8 (2, 1996): 109-29.
31. Kimberly Kobus, "Peers and Adolescent Smoking," Addiction 98 (Suppl 1, 2003): 37-55.
32. For example, USDHHS, Preventing Tobacco Use Among Young People: A Report of the Surgeon General;
33. Karl E. Bauman, Lynn A. Fisher, Elizabeth S. Bryan, and Roger L. Chenoweth, "Antecedents, Subjective Expected Utility, and Behavior: A Panel Study of Adolescent Cigarette Smoking," Addictive Behaviors 9 (2, 1984): 121-36;
34. Laurie Chassin, Clark C. Presson, and Steven J. Sherman, "Social Psychological Contributions to the Understanding and Prevention of Adolescent Cigarette Smoking," Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 16 (1, 1990): 133-51.
35. Traci Hong and Michael Cody, "Presence of Pro-Tobacco Messages on the Web," Journal of Health Communication 7 (4, 2002): 273-307.
36. For a review, see Bandura, "Social Cognitive Theory of Mass Communication";
37. Albert Bandura, Social Learning Theory (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1977);
38. Stanley J. Baran and Davis K. Dennis, Mass Communication Theory: Foundations, Ferment, and Future (Belmont, CA:
39. Thomson-Wadworth, 2003);
40. Werner J. Severin and James W. Tankard, Communication Theories: Origins, Methods, and Uses in the Mass Media, 4th ed. (New York: Longman, 1997);
41. Robert H. Wicks, Understanding Audiences: Learning to Use the Media Constructively (New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2001).
42. Basil et al., "How Cigarettes Are Advertised in Magazines: Special Messages for Special Markets"; Richard W. Pollay, Jung S. Lee, and David Carter-Whitney, "Separate But Not Equal: Racial Segmentation in Cigarette Advertising," Journal of Advertising 21 (March 1992): 45-58.
43. Joel B. Cohen, "Charting A Public Policy Agenda for Cigarettes," in Marketing and Advertising Regulation: The Federal Trade Commission in the 1990s, ed. P. E. Murphy and W. L. Wilkie (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame, 1990).
44. Richard W. Pollay, "Pertinent Research and Impertinent Opinion: Our Contribution to the Cigarette Advertising Policy Debate," Journal of Advertising 22 (4, 1993): 110-18;
45. Richard W. Pollay, "Filters, Flavors ... Flim-Flam, Too! on Health Information and Policy Implications in Cigarette Advertising," Journal of Public Policy and Marketing 8 (1989): 30-39.
46. For example, Marc G. Weinberger, Leland Campbell, and F. Douglas DuGrenier, "Cigarette Advertising: Tactical Changes in the Pre and Post Broadcast Era," AAA Proceedings (1981): 136-41;
47. Kenneth E. Warner, "Tobacco Industry Response to Public Health Concern: A Content Analysis of Cigarette Ads," Health Education Quarterly 12 (1, 1985): 115-27;
48. Altman et al., "How An Unhealthy Product Is Sold: Cigarette Advertising in Magazines, 1960-1985";
49. Debra J. Ringold and John E. Calfee, "The Informational Content of Cigarette Advertising: 1926-1986," Journal of Public Policy and Marketing 8 (1, 1989): 1-23;
50. Pollay, Lee, and Carter-Whitney, "Separate but Not Equal: Racial Segmentation in Cigarette Advertising."
51. Altman et al., "How An Unhealthy Product Is Sold: Cigarette Advertising in Magazines, 1960-1985";
52. Basil et al., "How Cigarettes Are Advertised in Magazines: Special Messages for Special Markets"; Weinberger, Campbell, and DuGrenier, "Cigarette Advertising: Tactical Changes in the Pre and Post Broadcast Era."
53. Warner, "Tobacco Industry Response to Public Health Concern: A Content Analysis of Cigarette Ads";
54. King et al., "Changes in the Visual Imagery of Cigarette Ads, 1954-1986";
55. Weinberger, Campbell, and DuGrenier, "Cigarette Advertising: Tactical Changes in the Pre and Post Broadcast Era."
56. Mary J. O'Sullivan and Frank H. Gilmer, "Sex of Model and Motivation to Change Behavior As Factors in Modeling," Psychological Reports 38 (1976): 595-601;
57. Larry Percy, "A Review of the Effect of Specific Advertising Elements Upon Overall Communication Response," Current Issues and Research in Advertising 2 (1983): 77-118.
58. King et al., "Changes in the Visual Imagery of Cigarette Ads, 1954-1986";
59. Weinberger, Campbell, and DuGrenier, "Cigarette Advertising: Tactical Changes in the Pre and Post Broadcast Era."
60. Warner, "Tobacco Industry Response to Public Health Concern: A Content Analysis of Cigarette Ads";
61. King et al., "Changes in the Visual Imagery of Cigarette Ads, 1954-1986."
62. King et al., "Changes in the Visual Imagery of Cigarette Ads, 1954-1986";
63. Basil et al., "How Cigarettes Are Advertised in Magazines: Special Messages for Special Markets";
64. Pollay, Lee, and Carter-Whitney, "Separate but Not Equal: Racial Segmentation in Cigarette Advertising."
65. King et al., "Changes in the Visual Imagery of Cigarette Ads, 1954-1986";
66. Warner, "Tobacco Industry Response to Public Health Concern: A Content Analysis of Cigarette Ads";
67. Weinberger, Campbell, and DuGrenier, "Cigarette Advertising: Tactical Changes in the Pre and Post Broadcast Era."
68. King et al., "Changes in the Visual Imagery of Cigarette Ads, 1954-1986";
69. Warner, "Tobacco Industry Response to Public Health Concern: A Content Analysis of Cigarette Ads."
70. Altman et al., "How An Unhealthy Product Is Sold: Cigarette Advertising in Magazines, 1960-1985";
71. Warner, "Tobacco Industry Response to Public Health Concern: A Content Analysis of Cigarette Ads";
72. Margaret A. Morrison, Dean M. Krugman, and Pumsoon Park, "Under the Radar: Smokeless Tobacco Advertising in Magazines with Substantial Youth Readership," American Journal of Public Health 97 (August 2007): 1-8.
73. Altman et al., "How An Unhealthy Product Is Sold: Cigarette Advertising in Magazines, 1960-1985";
74. Warner, "Tobacco Industry Response to Public Health Concern: A Content Analysis of Cigarette Ads.
75. Basil et al., "How Cigarettes Are Advertised in Magazines: Special Messages for Special Markets."
76. King et al., "Changes in the Visual Imagery of Cigarette Ads, 1954-1986."
77. Gideon Doron, The Smoking Paradox (Cambridge, MA: Abt Books, 1979);
78. King et al., "Changes in the Visual Imagery of Cigarette Ads, 1954-1986";
79. Warner, "Tobacco Industry Response to Public Health Concern: A Content Analysis of Cigarette Ads."
80. Schooler, Basil, and Altman, "Alcohol and Cigarette Advertising on Billboards: Targeting with Social Cues."
81. Basil et al., "How Cigarettes Are Advertised in Magazines: Special Messages for Special Markets."
82. Themes included adventure/risk (e.g., human models on a safari), recreation (e.g., human models skiing or playing volleyball), erotic/ romantic (e.g., a couple on a date holding hands), sociability (e.g., groups of people interacting), work activity (e.g., human model corralling horses), individualistic/solitary (e.g., reading a book or watching the sunset), and product features (e.g., emphasis on packaging and new ingredients).
83. William D. Perreault, Jr. and Laurence E. Leigh, "Reliability of Nominal Data Based on Qualitative Judgments," Journal of Marketing Research 26 (May 1989): 135-48.
84. MMWR, Cigarette Smoking Among Adults, October 6, 2000, United States 49 (39, 1998): 881-84;
85. MMWR, Tobacco Use Among Adults, October 27, 2006, United States 55 (42, 2005): 1145-48.
86. See, for example, Pollay, Lee, and Carter-Whitney, "Separate but Not Equal: Racial Segmentation in Cigarette Advertising."
87. According to the Kaiser Family Foundation, boys 8-18 spend more than twice as much time playing video games as their female counterparts. More than 80% of young people have a video game console at home and a majority (56%) has two or more. Kaiser Family Foundation, " Generation M: Media in the Lives of 8-18 Year-olds," March 2005, http://www1.medialiteracy.com/stats_parents.jsp (April 1, 2008).
88. Mediamark Research Inc. (MRI) Website, (2003), available at http:// www.mediamark.com (April 4, 2008).
89. Altman et al., "How an Unhealthy Product is Sold: Cigarette Advertising in Magazines, 1960-1985";
90. Warner, "Tobacco Industry Response to Public Health Concern: A Content Analysis of Cigarette Ads."
91. Altman et al.,"How an Unhealthy Product is Sold: Cigarette Advertising in Magazines, 1960-1985."
92. Lloyd Johnston, Patrick M. O'Malley, Jerald G. Bachman, and John E. Schulenberg, Decline in Daily Smoking by Younger Teens Has Ended, University of Michigan News and Information Services: Ann Arbor, MI, December 21, 2006, http://www.monitoringthefuture.org/data/06data. html#2006data-cigs (April 4, 2008).
93. For example, Stephen Brown, Anne-Marie Doherty, and Bill Clarke, Romancing the Market (London: Routledge, 1998);
94. Tom Reichert, "Sex in Advertising Research: A Review of Content, Effects, and Functions of Sexual Information in Consumer Advertising," Annual Review of Sex Research 13 (2002): 241-74.
95. Warner, "Tobacco Industry Response to Public Health Concern: A Content Analysis of Cigarette Ads."
96. Turner-Bowker and Hamilton, Cigarette Advertising Expenditures Before and After the Master Settlement Agreement: Preliminary Findings.
97. "Congress Moves Closer to Tobacco Clampdown. After committee vote, legislation appears certain to pass in house," Advertising Age, April 2, 2008, http://adage.com/print?article_id=126123 (April 3, 2008).