Islamic radicalism in East Africa: Is there a cause for concern?

Studies in Conflict and Terrorism

Volumn 31, Issue 9, 2008, Pages 829-855

  Kfir, Isaac ^a  

^a INTERDISCIPLINARY CENTER   (Israel)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 51449122012     PISSN: 1057610X     EISSN: 15210731     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/10576100802291584     Document Type: Article

References (170)

1. In some African states, shar'ia law is increasingly challenging state law leading to tensions between those advocating for greater Islamic observance and those wanting religion out of politics, as seen for example in Nigeria where a number of states have adopted shar'ia However, the best case of this is seen in Mali, which was a model of democratic development in the early 1990s, but is increasingly having to deal with demands for greater Islamic observance. For more see Benjamin F. Soars, "Islam in Mali in the Neoliberal Era," African Affairs 115(415) (January 2006), pp. 77-95.
2. David Shinn, "Fighting Terrorism in East Africa and the Horn," Foreign Service Journal (September 2004), p. 38
3. Felicitas Becker, "Rural Islamism During the 'War on Terror': A Tanzanian Case Study." African Affairs 105(421) (October 2006), pp. 583-603.
4. See for example Ayman al-Zawahiri's as-Sahab video, January 2007, "Set Out and Support Your Brothers in Somalia," in which al-Zawahiri calls on Muslims, especially in Yemen, the Arab Peninsula, Egypt, North Africa, and Sudan, to participate in a jihad against the Ethiopian presence in Somalia. "'Al-Qaeda' call for Somalia jihad." BBC News OnLine. 7 January 2007. Available at http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/6234167.stm
5. Brennan M. Kraxberger has argued thatwhat has forced a reassessment inU.S. thinking vis-à-vis Africa is the possibility that "failed states" or "failing states" in Africa would become a breeding ground for terrorists. Brennan M. Kraxberger, "The United States and Africa: Shifting Geopolitics in an 'Age of Terror,'" Africa Today 52(1) (2005), pp. 47-68
6. Padraig Carmody, "Transforming Globalization and Security: Africa and America Post-9/11," Africa Today 52(1) (Fall 2005), pp. 97-120.
7. There is at least one "failed stated" in the region in the shape of Somalia. Robert I. Rotberg describes a collapsed state as one that "...exhibits a vacuum of authority. It is a mere geographical expression, a black hole into which a failed polity has fallen." Robert I. Rotberg, "The Failure and Collapse of Nation-State: Breakdown, Prevention and Repair," in Robert I. Rotberg, When States Fail: Causes and Consequences (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2004), p. 9.
8. For the "weak state" syndrome see Stuart E. Eizenstat, John Edward Porter, and Jeremy M. Weinstein, "Rebuilding Weak States," Foreign Affairs 84(1) (January-February 2005), pp. 134-146. The authors declare, "the weakness of states can be measured according to lapses in three critical functions that the governments of all strong, stable states perform: Security, the provision of basic services, and the protection of essential civil freedoms."
9. A good example of this is the defection of Mohamooda A. Gass, formerly of the Afar Revolutionary Democratic Unity Front (ARDUF), to the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front. This led to claims that the ARDUF had given up the fight for Afar independence, a claim rejected by other members of ARDUF who have continued the struggle for Afar independence.
10. The sources range from online newspapers, to the RAND-MIPT Terrorism Incident Database, to academic journals and research papers to reports from international organizations and nongovernmental organizations.
11. For similar discussions on the question of the terminology in relation to radical Islam, see for example, Marc Sageman, Understanding Terror Networks (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004)
12. Mary R. Habeck, Knowing the Enemy: Jihadist Ideology and the War on Terror (NewHaven: Yale University Press, 2006)
13. David Cook, "The Recovery of Radical Islam in the Wake of the Defeat of the Taliban," Terrorism and Political Violence 15(1) (Spring 2003)
14. Mohamed IbrahimKhalil, "Islam and the Challenges ofModernity," Georgetown Journal of International Affairs 97(5) (2004)
15. Olivier Roy, Globalised Islam: The Search for a New Ummah (New York: Columbia University Press, 2004)
16. David Cook, "The Recovery of Radical Islam in the Wake of the Defeat of the Taliban," Terrorism and Political Violence 15(1) (Spring 2003)
17. Charles Kurzman, "Liberal Islam: Prospects and Challenges," Middle East Review of International Affairs 3(3) (September 1999)
18. Gilles Kepel, The Roots of Radical Islam (London: SAQI, 2005)
19. Jessica Stern, Terror in the Name of God: Why Militants Kill (New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 2003).
20. "Understanding Islamism," International Crisis Group Africa Report No. 37 (Cairo, 2 March 2005), p. 1
21. Quinan Wiktorowicz, "The New Global Threat: Transnational Salafis and Jiahd," Middle East Policy 8(4) (December 2001), pp. 18-38
22. Febe Armanios, "The Islamic Traditions of Wahhabism and Salafiyya," CRS Report for Congress, 22 December 2003 (Order Code RS21695)
23. Gilles Kepel, The Roots of Radical Islam (London: SAQI, 2005).
24. Arguably, this is becauseMuslims living in the region have not developed a unified Muslim identity, as seen for example in Kenya where Muslims operate along ethnic, tribal, and geographical lines. There is also the issue of the government prohibiting Muslims from having a Muslim political party while at the same time endeavoring to include Muslims within the political system. For example, in 1968, the government allowed the formation of the National Union of Kenya Muslims, which two junior members of the KANU government ran. A few years later, the Supreme Council of Kenyan Muslim emerged. The Council was close to the regime and received official recognition as the legitimate representative of the Kenya Muslim community. Bjorn Moller, "Political Islam in Kenya," DIIS Working Paper, No. 2006/22 (2006), p. 13.
25. Edmund Sanders, "Somalia Opposition Forges Mixed Deal," Los Angeles Times, 15 September 2007
26. Sydney Irving, "Splits Developing in Somali Insurgency," Terrorism Focus 4(32) (10 October 2007), pp. 1-2.
27. It is a truism that in the twenty-first century Al Qaeda terrorism attracts media attention and therefore helps publicise a cause. A classic example is the greater focus that has been placed on Al Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb, formerly the Salafist Group for Preaching and Combat (GSPC).
28. See for example Ken Menkhaus on the limited role that Islam played in Somali politics. Ken Menkhaus, "Political Islam in Somalia," Middle East Policy IX(1) (March 2002), pp. 110-111.
29. Bjørn Møller, "Religion and Conflict in Africa with a Special Focus on East Africa," Danish Institute for International Studies (Copenhagen, 2006), pp. 19-20
30. Felicitas Becker, "Rural Islamism During the 'War on Terror': A Tanzanian Case Study," African Affairs 105(421) (October 2006), pp. 583-603.
31. Douglas Hamilton Johnson, The Root Causes of Sudan's CivilWars (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2003)
32. Ann Mosely Lesch, The Sudan Contested National Identities (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1998)
33. Jeffrey Herbst, States and Power in Africa: Comparative Lessons in Authority and Control (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000)
34. Alex deWaal, ed., Islamism and Its Enemies in the Horn of Africa (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2004).
35. "A More Secure World," Report of the High-level Panel on ThreatsChallenges and Change, United Nations, 2004.
36. In the 2005 Human Development Index, Djibouti was ranked 150; Kenya, 154; Eritrea, 161, and Ethiopia, 170. Sudan was the only country outside of the low human development category as it sat at 141. "Human Development Indicator, Human Development Report, 2005." United Nations Development Programme. Available at http://hdr.undp.org/ reports/global/2005/pdf/HDR05 HDI.pdf
37. "Life Expectancy in Sub-Saharan Africa is Lower Now than 30 Years Ago: UN Index," UN News Centre, 12 November 2006. Available at http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=20548&Cr= human&Cr1=develop
38. Taken from the testimony of J. Peter Pham, "AFRICA COMMAND A Historic Opportunity for Enhanced Engagement - If Done Right." Testimony before the United States House of Representatives Committee on Foreign Affairs Subcommittee on Africa and Global Health (2 August 2007).
39. Walter Laqueur, The History of Terrorism (London: Transaction Publishers, 2002)
40. Walter Laqueur, The New Terrorism: Fanaticism and the Arms of Mass Destruction (London: Phoenix Press, 2001)
41. Paul Wilkinson, Terrorism versus Democracy: The Liberal State Response (London: Frank Case, 2006, 2nd ed.), pp. 49-53
42. Alan B. Krueger and Jitka Maleckova, "Does Poverty Cause Terrorism?" The New Republic (24 June 2002), pp. 27-33
43. Alberto Abadie, "Poverty, Political Freedom, and the Roots Of Terrorism," National Bureau of Economic Research. Working Paper 10859 (October 2004).
44. Two key books on terrorism in East Africa are: Robert I. Rotberg, ed., Battling Terrorism in the Horn of Africa (Washington: Brookings Institution Press, 2005)
45. Alex de Waal, ed., Islamism and Its Enemies in the Horn of Africa (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2004).
46. Looking at the madrassahs in Pakistan, P. W. Singer notes how they became centers of Islamic radicalism. Singer writes, "Some Madrassahs provide food and clothes, and even pay parents to send their children, further increasing their enticement." This explains why madrassahs such as Dur-ul-Uloom Haqqania, a madrassah that counts among its alumni several Afghan Taliban leaders, was so popular. Singer notes that in 2001 it had a student body of 1,500 boarders and 1,000 day students, from the age of 6 upward. Every year, only 400 students are accepted out of 15,000 applicants. P.W. Singer, "Pakistan's Madrassahs: Ensuring a System of Education not Jihad." Brookings Institute Analysis Paper No. 14 (November 2001). Available at http://www.brookings.edu/views/papers/singer/ 20020103.pdf
47. For example, in January 2001, King Fahd bin Abdulaziz ordered that the Saudi Red Crescent Society provide urgent relief aid in lieu of the floods that plagued Somalia. "2001 Foreign Aid News Story: Kingdom extends relief aid to Somalia," Royal Embassy of Saudi Arabia, Washington DC, 14 January 2001. Available at http://www.saudiembassy.net/2001News/News/ForDetail.asp?cIndex=1145 (Accessed 30 October 2007.)
48. "IIRO Continues to Give Assistance to African States." Royal Embassy of Saudi Arabia, Washington DC, 29 December 2002. Available at http://www.saudiembassy.net/2002News/News/ForDetail.asp?cIndex=3857
49. In November 1994, themain FRUD party signed a peace accord leading to the appointment of two FRUD members to the Cabinet.
50. Freedom House describes the country as "partly free." Available at http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page= 22&country=6951&year=2006 (Accessed 23 October 2007).
51. Human Development Report, 2006 - Beyond Scarcity: Power, Poverty and the Global Water Crisis (New York: United Nations Development Programme, UNDP, 2006), p. 290.
52. "The World Fact Book, 2007." Available at https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/index.html
53. The food has been distributed to Djiboutians (two thirds) and to refugees (one third). Information taken from the USAID website dealing with Djibouti. Available at http://www.usaid.gov/policy/budget/cbj2005/ afr/dj.html. For a full breakdown of the aid sent to Djibouti and from who, see "Financial Tracking Service," United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. Available at http://ocha.unog.ch/fts/reporting/reportingdisplay.asp?short= 1&filterLabel=Destination%20CountryDjibouti&whereClause= %20WHERE%20(DestinationCountryName=%220'Djibouti'%20)
54. Reuters, "Djibouti Throws Out its Immigrants," The Guardian [UK], 17 September 2003. Available at http://www.guardian.co.uk/international/story/0,3604,1043408,00.html
55. Information taken from the USAID website dealing with Djibouti. Available at http://www.usaid.gov/policy/budget/cbj2005/afr/dj.html
56. "Republic of Djibouti Country Economic Memorandum: Unlocking Djibouti's Growth Potential: The Road Ahead." Vol. I, World Bank (Social and Economic Development Group Middle East and North Africa Region), 10 August 2006 (Report No. 33115-DJ).
57. Available at http://www.tkb.org/Group.jsp?groupID=3651; Peter Strandberg, "Oromo: The Forgotten People?" New African (July/August 2001), p. 17.
58. In 2004, German President Johannes Rau cancelled a trip to Djibouti after reports that Islamic terrorists were planning an assassination. German authorities did not elaborate who were the terrorists. "German President Cancels Trip to Djibouti after Receiving Terror Threat," USA Today, 24 March 2004.
59. The Red Sea Afar Democratic Organisation (RSADO) might expand its operation from focusing on Eritrea to Djibouti, especially as the country has a history of ethnic tensions.
60. Ethiopia's lack of direct access to the sea has led to numerous agreements (Port Utilization Agreement) between Addis Ababa and the Sudan and Djibouti. In May 2004, Ethiopia and Djibouti also concluded a Through Bill of Lading arrangement, which allows for the transportation of cargo from a port to an inland point or a port of final destination in the consignee's country using sea or land.
61. The AC-130 gunship that attacked Islamist targets in Southern Somalia operated out of Djibouti. "This time it's revenge; Somalia," The Economist, 13 January 2007, p. 41.
62. For more information visit the official website of CJTF-HOA: http://www.hoa.centcom.mil/english.asp
63. See the U.S. embassy in Djibouti website: http://djibouti.usembassy.gov/ development_aid_to_djibouti.html (Accessed 17 September 2007.)
64. Inas Mazhar, "Marching On," Al-Ahram Weekly On-Line. Issue 839, April 11, 2007. Available at http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2007/839/re91.htm
65. "Country Profile: Eritrea." Library of Congress, Federal Research Division (September 2005). Available at http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Eritrea.pdf
66. For a comprehensive review of the human rights situation in Eritrea, see "World Report, 2006," Human Rights Watch (New York, 2006), pp. 97-102.
67. For a comprehensive review of the situation between the two countries and the border dispute, see for example, Terrence Lyons, "Avoiding Conflict in the Horn of Africa: U.S. Policy toward Ethiopia and Eritrea," Council on Foreign Relations (CSR No. 21 (December 2006)).
68. Addis Ababa blamed the incident on Asmara who in turn claimed that the Afar Revolutionary Democratic Unity Front orchestrated it. "Ethiopia Hostages 'Safe and Well,'" BBC News Online, 20 March 2007. Available at http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/6470545.stm?lsf
69. "Human Development Report, 2006," United Nations Development Programme (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006), p. 285.
70. Donica Testamariam, "War Leaves a Shadow of Hunger over Eritrea," Contemporary Review (January 2002), pp. 37-39.
71. Eritrea's coastline is 2,234 km long, with 1,151 km along the Red Sea and 1,083 km of island coastline in the Red Sea.
72. The government officially recognizes four religious denominations: Islam, Orthodox Coptic Christianity, Roman Catholicism, and the Eritrean Evangelical Church, with the others having to first register with the government before they can operate in the country. "Country Profile: Eritrea," Library of Congress, Federal Research Division (September 2005). Available at http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/ Eritrea.pdf
73. Saleh Gadi, "Interview: Khalil M Amer/Eritrean Islamic Salvation Front," Awate.com. 2 January 2004. Available at http://www.awate.com/artman/publish/printer2918.shtml
74. "Group Profile: Eritrean Islamic Jihad Movement," MIPT Terrorism Knowledge Base. Available at http://www.tkb.org/ Group.jsp?groupID=4535 (Accessed April 27, 2007.)
75. "Interview with Deputy Amir of the Eritrean Islamic Jihad Movement," Nida'ul Islam (February-March 1998). Available at http://www.fas.org/irp/world/para/docs/eritrea.htm
76. Ibid.
77. Gadi, "Interview." Reporters Sans Frontieres (RSF) has ranked Eritrea in the last place (169th) in relation to press freedom, which emphasizes the state of political freedom in the country.
78. "Freedom of the Press, Worldwide in 2007, Annual Report," Reporters Sans Frontieres (Paris:REporters without Border), pp. 21-22.Available at http://www.rsf.org/IMG/pdf/rapport_en_bd-4.pdf
79. "Iran Welcomes Eritrean Proposal to Establish Diplomatic Ties," Islamic Republic News Agency. [Iran] 12 December 2006. Available at http://www.irna.com/en/news/view/menu-234/0612129430184856.htm
80. Timothy Carney, "The Sudan: Political Islam and Terrorism," in Robert I. Rotberg, ed., Battling Terrorism in the Horn of Africa, pp. 119-140.
81. See also Erich Marquardt, "Al-Qaeda's Threat to Ethiopia," Terrorism Monitor 3(3) (10 February 2005), pp. 3-6.
82. Due to the poor state of affairs between Ethiopia and Eritrea, Addis Ababa must rely on ports in Somaliland and Djibouti. In 2002, when Ethiopia faced another famine, aid agencies declared that the country needed between 1.5 million to 2 million tons of food and yet Addis Ababa refused to use the Eritrean ports of Masawa and Assab. "Ethiopia Rejects Eritrean Ports," BBC News Online, 12 November 2002. Available at http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/2488499.stm
83. For an excellent look at how the Ethiopian state operated during the time of Haile Sellasie see Ryszard Kapuscinski, The Emperor: Downfall of an Autocrat (London: Penguin Books, 2006). Mengistu used aid to control and punish Ethiopians.
84. The Carter Center, although noting that there were problems with the 2005 elections, still held, "The elections process demonstrated significant advances in Ethiopia's democratization process, including most importantly the introduction of a more competitive electoral process, which could potentially result in a pluralistic, multi-party political system. Ethiopians saw and understood that public policy appropriately receives debate, that public media cover multiple points of view, that voters' choices can result in the election of opposition members of parliament, and that local administration may be in the hands of a party other than the ruling party." "Final Statement on the Carter Center Observation of the Ethiopia 2005 National Elections, September 2005." The Carter Center (15 September 2005). Available at http://www.cartercenter.org/documents/2199.pdf
85. "World Report, 2006," Human Rights Watch (New York, 2006), pp. 103-108.
86. "Freedom House Country Reports, Ethiopia 2006," Freedom House. Available at http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page= 22&country=6961&year=2006 (Accessed 20 August 2007.)
87. "A Brittle Western Ally in the Horn of Africa," The Economist, 1 November 2007.
88. "Human Development Report, 2006," United Nations Development Programme (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006), p. 286.
89. The Islamic Courts Union had a relationship with al-Ittihaad al-Islami, which fought to unify Ethiopia's Orgaden with the rest of Somalia.
90. The United States is Ethiopia's largest donor of bilateral aid and Prime Minister Meles Zenawi plays an important role in Tony Blair's Commission for Africa initiative. "World Report, 2006," Human Rights Watch (New York, 2006), pp. 103-108.
91. When the United States launched attacks against suspected Al Qaeda operatives in Somalia it used an airstrip in Ethiopia. Moreover, American officials have admitted that members of the elit unit Task Force 88 have operated in Ethiopia. Michael R. Gordon and Mark Mazzeti, "U.S. Used Bases in Ethiopia to Hunt Al Qaeda in Africa," International Herald Tribune, 22 February 2007.
92. Sunguta West, "Somalia's ICU and its Roots in al-Ittihad al-Islami," Terrorism Monitor 4(15) (27 July 2006), pp. 3-5
93. Matt Bryden, "No Quick Fixes: Coming to Terms with Terrorism, Islam, and Statelessness in Somalia," Journal of Conflict Studies (Fall 2003), pp. 24-56.
94. See for example the reports by Jeffrey Gettleman, "In Ethiopian Desert, Horrors of a Hidden War," International Herald Tribune, 17 June 2007
95. Jeffrey Gettleman, "Ethiopian Rebels to Refrain From Attacks," The New York Times, 3 September 2007.
96. In 1980, the Palestinian Liberation Organisation (PLO) carried out an attack at the Norfolk Hotel, which left 16 people dead and over 100 injured. The attack was possibly a retaliation for the role played by Kenya in the 1972 Israeli military raid on Entebbe.
97. "Country Fact Sheet," Human Development Report, 2006. United Nations Development Fund (2006). Available at http://hdr.undp.org/ hdr2006/statistics/countries/country_fact_sheets/cty_fs_KEN.html
98. Jeff Otieno, "16 m Kenyans Living in Extreme Poverty," Daily Nation [Kenya], 27 April 2007. Available at http://www.nationmedia.com/dailynation/nmgcontententry.asp? category_id=1&newsid=96849
99. Ken Menkhaus, Somalia: State Collapse and the Threat of Terrorism (Oxford: Oxford University Press for the International Institute for Strategic Studies, 2004)
100. Jeffrey Haynes, "Islamic Militancy in East Africa," Third World Quarterly 26(8) (2005), pp. 1326-1327
101. Bjørn Møller, "Religion and Conflict in Africa with a Special Focus on East Africa," Danish Institute for International Studies (Copenhagen, 2006), pp. 78-79.
102. Jeffrey Haynes, "Islamic Militancy in East Africa," Third World Quarterly 26(8) (2005), pp. 1326-1327.
103. Jeffrey Haynes, "Islam and Democracy in East Africa," Democratization 13(3) (June 2006), pp. 498-501.
104. "Country Reports on Terrorism, 2005." United States Department of State, Office of the Coordinator for Counterterrorism (April 2006), pp. 50-51.
105. Haynes, "Islam and Democracy in East Africa," pp. 498-501.
106. Haynes, "Islamic Militancy in East Africa," pp. 1328-1330.
107. Examples of Somalis linked to Al Qaeda are: Abdullah Hersi al-Turki, Sheikh Hassan Dahir Aweys, Ali Ahmed Jimale, and Abdullahi Hussein Kahie.
108. Ken Menkhaus has argued, "Somalia is a lousy hideout for non-Somali radicals. Foreigners cannot operate in secrecy in Somalia; everyone knows who you are and what you're doing, and locals would not hesitate to expose the presence of non-Somalis in their midst." Ken Menkhaus, "Somalia at Crossroads of American Foreign Policy," FPIF Commentary 28 January 2002. Available at http://www.fpif.org/fpiftxt/205
109. William Reno, "Somalia and Survival: In the Shadow of the Global Economy," QEH Working Paper No. 100 (February 2003). Available at http://www2.qeh.ox.ac.uk/pdf/qehwp/qehwps100.pdf
110. Ken Menkhaus, Somalia: State Collapse and the Threat of Terrorism (Oxford: Oxford University Press for the International Institute for Strategic Studies, 2004).
111. Andrew Cockburn, "Somalia a Failed State?" National Geographic 202(1) (July 2002).
112. See also CIA World Fact-Book (8 August 2006). Available at https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/so.html
113. Menkhaus, "Somalia at Crossroads of American Foreign Policy" William Reno, "Somalia and Survival: In the Shadow of the Global Economy," QEHWorking Paper No. 100 (February 2003). Available at http://www2.qeh.ox.ac.uk/pdf/qehwp/qehwps100.pdf
114. Sabrina Grosse-Kettler, "External Actors in Stateless Somalia: A War Economy and its Promoters," Paper 39, Bonn International Centre for Conversion (Bonn, 2004), p. 8
115. Cockburn, "Somalia a Failed State?" This view is made very clear in the latest report by the International Crisis Group on Somalia, as it emphasizes the importance of clan affiliation within Somalia's intricate political system. "Can the Somali Crisis be Contained?" International Crisis Group, Africa Report No. 116 (10 August 2006).
116. Menkhaus, Somalia
117. Ayaan Hirsi Ali, Infidel (London: Simon & Schuster, 2007).
118. This manifests itself, for example, at peace talks where the delegates spend more time arguing over how many delegates each clan may have.
119. "Somalia: Country Report, 2006," Freedom House (2006). Available at http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page= 22&country=7059&year=2006
120. Ibid.
121. "Somalia," The CIA World Fact Book Available at https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ so.html (Accessed 23 October 2007.)
122. See, for example, "Islamists Arrest 9 in Mogadishu after Cinema Raid," Shabelle.net, 19 July 2006. Available at http://www.shabellenews.com/news/ne1280.htm
123. Sheikh Ali Hassan of the Islamic Courts militia closed the cinema halls in Jowhar, declaring, "In principle, we are against the watching of western films..." "Islamists Impose Shariah," Gulf Times [Qatar], 20 June 2006
124. "Somalia: Islamists Punish Teenagers with Lashes," Shabelle.net, 8 July 2006. Available at http://www.shabellenews.com/news/ne1241.htm
125. "Can the Somali Crisis be Contained?" International Crisis Group Africa Report No. 116 (10 August 2006), p. 9.
126. "Somalia: Islamists Punish Teenagers with Lashes."
127. The Hawiye clan (Habr Gidir Ayr sub-clan) dominated the ICU. Sheik Aweys is from the Habr Gidir Ayr sub-clan. The Darod clan dominates the Transitional Federal Government and consequently there are tensions between the two clans, as they both accuse each other of malfeasance and self-clan interest.
128. Qaad or Khat is mild, leafy stimulant. "Can the Somali Crisis be Contained?" p.10.
129. Aweys is also the mentor of the Afghan-trained Adan Hashi Ayro who seems to have better ties with Al Qaeda and clearly wants Somalia to follow the Afghan Taliban module. Frederick Nzwili, "Leadership Profile: Somalia's Islamic Courts Union," Terrorism Focus III(23) (13 June 2003), pp. 5-6.
130. See, for example, "Somalia's Islamists," International Crisis Group Africa Report No. 100 (12 December 2005)
131. "Somalia: Countering Terrorism in a Failed State." International Crisis Group, Africa Report No. 45 (23 May 2002)
132. "Counter-Terrorism in Somalia: Losing Hearts and Minds," International Crisis Group, Africa Report No. 95 (11 July 2005).
133. Andrew McGregor, "Prosecuting Terrorism: Yemen's War on Islamist Militancy," Terrorism Monitor IV(9) (4 May 2006), pp. 3-5.
134. Chris Tomlinson, "Somalia Slips Ever Closer to War," Mail & Guardian Online [South Africa], 5 December 2006. Available at http://www.mg.co.za/articlePage.aspx?articleid=292425&area=/ breaking_news/breaking_news_africa/
135. Richard Beeston, "These 10 Countries are Fanning Civil War Hate, UN Says," The Times [UK], 16 November 2006. Available at http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,3-2455243,00.html
136. In the 1990s, Al Qaeda endeavored somewhat unsuccessful to establish a foothold in Somalia.
137. Andrew Mcgregor, "The Leading Factions behind the Somali Insurgency," Terrorism Monitor 5(8) (26 April 2007), pp. 1-4.
138. In a communiqué issued following a meeting in Asmara, the Alliance declared, "Resistance to the occupation is a legitimate and sacred right. It is a national duty as well as a religious obligation for all citizens." Jack Kimball, "Islamists to Lead Opposition Alliance," The Somaliland Times, Issue 295, 14 September 2007. Available at http://www.somalilandtimes.net/sl/2007/295/20.0.shtml
139. Quote taken from "Somali, Ethiopian Forces Prepare Major Assault on Last Stronghold of Islamic Militias," USA Today, 5 January 2007
140. "Bin Laden Releases Web Message on Iraq, Somalia," USA Today, 7 January 2006.
141. Mariam Bibi Jooma, "Sudan: The Crisis of Cohesion?" African Security Review 15(3) (2006), pp. 48-50.
142. The Sudanese cannot change their government through free elections (the December 2000 parliamentary and presidential elections were deemed not free). "Sudan: Country Reports, 2006," Freedom House. Available at http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=363&year= 2006&country=7063
143. Karrar A. B. Abbadi and Adam Elhag Ahmed, "Brief Overview of Sudan Economy and Future Prospects for Agricultural Development," Khartoum Food Aid Forum, 6-8 June 2006. Available at http://sudanreport.unep.ch/sudan_website/doccatcher/data/documents/ Brief overview of sudan economy and future prospects for agricultural development.pdf
144. Max Taylor and Mohamed E. Elbushra, "Research Note: Hassan al-Turabi, Osama bin Laden, and Al Qaeda in Sudan," Terrorism and Political Violence 18 (2006), pp. 449-464.
145. Alex de Waal and A. H. Abdel Salam, "Islamism, State Power and Jihad in Sudan" In Alex de Waal, ed., Islamism and Its Enemies in the Horn of Africa (London: Hurst & Co, 2004), pp. 21-113.
146. "Sudan-Designated Date - August 12, 1993." State Sponsors of Terrorism. US Department of State - Office for the Coordinator of Counterterrorism. Available at http://www.state.gov/s/ct/c14151.htm
147. Al Qaeda planned and trained in the Sudan for the simultaneous bombings of two U.S. embassies in East Africa in 1998. It is suspected that Al Qaeda still operates, albeit on a small scale. Al Qaeda is not the sole group that planned transnational attacks from Sudanese territory. The Egyptian al-Gama'at al-Islamiyaa claimed responsibility for the assassination attempt on President Mubarak. The government of Ethiopia, among other nations, has implicated the Sudanese government in playing a role in the failed assassination. "Security Council Calls on Sudan to Extradite Suspects in Attempted Assassination of Egyptian President." Press Release, Security Council. 6170, 31 January 1996. Available at http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/1996/ 19960131.sc6170.html
148. The MIPT database declares that such groups as the Lord's Resistance Army (LRA), Eritrean Islamic Jihad Movement (EIJM), and Al Qaeda operate in the Sudan. See MIPT entries on the Sudan. Available at http://www.tkb.org/Country.jsp?countryCd=SU (Accessed 20 November 2007). The U.S. State Department, in its Country Reports on Terrorism, notes that the Sudan has supported U.S. efforts in combating terrorist groups, but at the same time, it allows Hamas to conduct fund-raising operations in the country. Furthermore, there are suggestions that individuals with some association to Al Qaeda have penetrated Darfur with the aim of establishing networks in the province. "Country Reports on Terrorism." Office of the Coordinator for Counterterrorism, 30 April 2007. Available at http://www.state.gov/s/ct/rls/crt/2006/82736.htm (Accessed 25 November 2007.)
149. See table in the Appendix.
150. M. A. Mohamed Salih, "Islamic N.G.O.s in Africa: The Promise and Peril of Islamism," In Alex de Waal, ed., Islamism and Its Enemies in the Horn of Africa (London: Hurst & Co, 2004), pp. 146-181.
151. Mohamed Olad Hassan, "Life under Somalia's Islamists," BBC News On-Line, 11 July 2006. Available at http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/5168008.stm
152. Timothy Carney, "The Sudan: Political Islam and Terrorism," in Robert I. Rotberg, ed., Battling Terrorism in the Horn of Africa (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2005), p. 124.
153. Freedom House rates the countries in the region as either "not free" or "partly free." For more information visit the Freedom House website at: http://www.freedomhouse.org/.
154. See also Vince Crawley, "U.S. Creating New Africa Command to Coordinate Military Efforts," USINFO, 6 February 2007. Available at http://usinfo.state.gov/xarchives/display.html?p= washfile-english&y=2007&m=February&x= 20070206170933MVyelwarC0.2182581
155. The U.S. East Africa Counterterrorism Initiative is a $100 million initiative initiated in June 2003, whose aim is to provide military training for border and coastal security, aviation security, police training, capacity building as well as assistance in dealing with terrorist financing. The Safe Skies Programme emerged under President Clinton with the aim of ensuring that African countries progress in the realm of transportation and communications. Safe Skies focuses on providing technical assistance and capacity building. The Pan-Sahel Initiative is a State Department program that is meant to enhance border capabilities against weapon smuggling, drug trafficking, and transnational terrorism.
156. The EU-Africa Dialogue is meant to assistance the EU and Africa to deal with such critical issues as trade and agricultural subsidies, the environment, and so on. Ultimately, the EU's position is that Islamic radicalism and migration from Africa will cease if the socioeconomic situation in Africa improves. See for example, "EU Strategy for Africa: Towards a Euro-African pact to Accelerate Africa's Development," Communication from the Commission to the Council, the European Parliament and the European Economic and Social Committee. (SEC(2005)1255), 12 October 2005. Available at http://ec.europa.eu/development/body/eu_africa/docs/ COMM_PDF_COM_2005_0489_F_EN_ACTE.pdf
157. Ayman al-Zawahiri and leaders of the ICU have called on the faithful to engage in a jihad against the crusaders. Al-Zawahiri in an audio message declared, "I speak to you today as the crusader invader forces of Ethiopia violate the soil of the beloved Muslim Somalia ... I call upon the Muslim nation in Somalia to remain in the new battlefield that is one of the crusader battlefields that are being launched by America and its allies and the United Nations against Islam and Muslims." "Somalia 'needs force quickly'." BBC News On-Line, 5 January 2007. Available at http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/6233159.stm
158. In other words, applying Edward Luttwak's thesis of "give war a chance" one would argue that the Somali clans should be let to fight it out until there is a clear winner. Edward Luttwak, "Give War A Chance," 78(4) (July-August 1999), pp. 36-44.
159. Human Development Report 2006 beyond Scarcity: Power, Poverty and the Global Water Crisis. (New York: United Nations Development Programme, 2006), pp. 283-286. Available at http://hdr.undp.org/hdr2006/pdfs/report/ HDR06-complete.pdf
160. Figures taken from CIA, The World Factbook. Available at https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/dj.html (Accessed 20 July 2007.)
161. "Djibouti Data Profile," The World Bank. Available at http://devdata.worldbank.org/external/CPProfile.asp?PTYPE=CP&CCODE= DJI (Accessed 20 July 2007.
162. Figures taken from CIA The World Factbook.
163. "Eritrea Data Profile," The World Bank. Available at http://devdata.worldbank.org/external/CPProfile.asp?PTYPE=CP&CCODE= ERI (Accessed 20 July 2007.)
164. Figures taken from CIA The World Factbook.
165. "Ethiopia Data Profile," The World Bank. Available at http://devdata.worldbank.org/external/CPProfile.asp?PTYPE=CP&CCODE= ETH (Accessed 20 July 2007.)
166. Figures taken from CIA The World Factbook.
167. "Kenya Data Profile" The World Bank. Available at http://devdata.worldbank.org/external/CPProfile.asp?PTYPE=CP&CCODE= KEN (Accessed 20 July 2007.)
168. Figures taken from CIA The World Factbook.
169. Ibid.
170. "Sudan Data Profile," The World Bank. Available at http://devdata.worldbank.org/external/CPProfile.asp?PTYPE=CP&CCODE= SDN (Accessed 20 July 2007.)