States and power in Africa: Comparative lessons in authority and control

States and Power in Africa: Comparative Lessons in Authority and Control

Volumn , Issue , 2014, Pages 1-280

  Herbst, Jeffrey ^a  

^a Center for Language and Brain   (United States)

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EID: 84924915194     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
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References (486)

1. See Economic Commission for Africa, Lagos Plan of Action for the Economic Development of Africa (Addis Ababa: OAU, 1981), p. 4.
2. See, for example, Carne Ross, "South Sudan: Lessons in Diplomacy from the Birth of a New Nation," The Guardian, 15 July 2011.
3. "The African Peer Review Mechanism Ten Years On: How Can It Be Strengthened?" South African Institute of International Affairs, December 2013, p. 1.
4. Seth Kaplan, "What Makes Lagos a Model City," New York Times, 7 January 2014.
5. James Fessler, Area and Administration (Birmingham: University of Alabama Press, 1949), p. 1.
6. Charles Tilly, Big Structures, Large Processes, Huge Comparisons (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1984), p. 74.
7. Harry Eckstein, "Unfinished Business: Reflections on the Scope of Comparative Politics," Comparative Political Studies 31 (August 1998): p. 520.
8. R. Bin Wong, China Transformed: Historical Change and the Limits of European Experience (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1997), p. ix.
9. John D. Durand, "Historical Estimates of World Population: An Evaluation," Population and Development Review 3 (September 1977): p. 259.
10. John Iliffe, Africans: The History of a Continent (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), p. 70.
11. While hampered by very poor data, Robert Bates found that, in the African polities he was able to code, "the higher the population density, the greater the level of political centralization."
12. See his Essays on the Political Economy of Rural Africa (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), p. 35.
13. Robert F. Stevenson, Population and Political Systems in Tropical Africa (New York: Columbia University Press, 1968).
14. W. Bediako Lamousé-Smith and Joseph School, Africa Interactive Maps, CD-ROM, (Odenton, Md.: Africa Interactive Maps, 1998).
15. W. Arthur Lewis, Politics in West Africa (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1965), p. 24.
16. Ralph Austen, African Economic History (London: James Currey, 1987), p. 20.
17. For a provocative thesis, see Jared Diamond, Guns, Germs and Steel: The Fate of Human Societies (New York: W. W. Norton, 1997), chapter 19.
18. Ibn Khaldun, The Muqaddimah, trans. Franz Rosenthal (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1967), p. 63;
19. Montesquieu, The Spirit of the Laws, vol. 1 (Cincinnati: Robert Clarke, 1873), p. 255;
20. Jeffrey Sachs, "Nature, Nurture, and Growth," The Economist, 14 June 1997, pp. 19-23.
21. Garrett Mattingly, Renaissance Diplomacy (London: Jonathan Cape, 1955), p. 60.
22. Charles Tilly, Coercion, Capital, and European States, A.D. 990-1992 (Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, 1990), p. 54.
23. John H. Herz, "Rise and Demise of the Territorial State," World Politics 9 (1957): p. 477.
24. Michael Howard, The Lessons of History (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1991), p. 23.
25. Tilly, Coercion, Capital, and European States, p. 49.
26. Tilly, Coercion, Capital, and European States, p. 51.
27. Richard Pankhurst, "Menelik and the Foundation of Addis Ababa," Journal of African History 2 (1961): p. 103.
28. Elizabeth Colson, "African Society at the Time of the Scramble," in Colonialism in Africa, 1870-1960, ed. L. H. Gann and Peter Duignan, vol. 1 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1969), p. 42.
29. Walter Elkan and Roger van Zwanenberg, "How People Came to Live in Towns," in Colonialism in Africa, 1870-1960, ed. Peter Duignan and L. H. Gann, vol. 4, (Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 1975), p. 655.
30. A. J. Christopher, "Urbanization and National Capitals in Africa," in Urbanization in Africa: A Handbook, ed. James D. Tarver (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1994), p. 411.
31. David Simon, Cities, Capital, and Development: African Cities in the World Economy (London: Belhaven Press, 1992), pp. 24-5.
32. Catherine Coquery-Vidrovitch, Africa: Endurance and Change South of the Sahara (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988), p. 174.
33. Lewis, Politics in West Africa, p. 14.
34. Jeffrey Herbst, State Politics in Zimbabwe (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990), chapter 2.
35. Aristide R. Zolberg, Creating Political Order: The Party-States of West Africa (Chicago:Rand McNally and Co., 1966), pp. 34-5.
36. Robert H. Bates, Markets and States in Sub-Saharan Africa (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981), p. 33.
37. Goran Hyden, Beyond Ujamaa in Tanzania: Underdevelopment and an Uncaptured Peasantry (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980), pp. 9-18.
38. Stephen G. Bunker, Peasants against the State: The Politics of Market Control in Bugisu, Uganda, 1900-1983 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987), p. 5.
39. Hyden, Beyond Ujamaa in Tanzania, pp. 23-4.
40. Michael Bratton, "Peasant-State Relations in Postcolonial Africa: Patterns of Engagement and Disengagement," in State Power and Social Forces: Domination and Transformation in the Third World, ed. Joel S. Migdal, Atul Kohli, and Vivienne Shue, (New York:Cambridge University Press, 1994), p. 231.
41. United Nations, Concise Report on the World Population Situation in 1993 (New York:United Nations, 1994), p. 36.
42. Economic Commission for Africa, Survey of Economic and Social Conditions in Africa, 1991-2, (Addis Ababa: Economic Commission for Africa, 1994), p. 117.
43. World Bank, World Development Report 1998, p. 231.
44. William G. Thom, "An Assessment of Prospects for Ending Domestic Military Conflict in Sub-Saharan Africa," CSIS Africa Notes 177 (October 1995), p. 3
45. "Zimbabwe: Report Cites UK Paper on 'Ominous' State of Defense Force," Harare Zimbabwe Standard, 11 May 1998
46. Foreign Broadcast Information Service, Daily Report: Sub-Saharan Africa, 12 May 1998.
47. Michael Bratton and Nicolas van de Walle, "Toward Governance in Africa: Popular Demand and State Responses," in Governance and Politics in Africa, ed. Goran Hyden and Michael Bratton (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1992), 1992, p. 31.
48. Henry Bienen and Jeffrey Herbst, "Economic and Political Reform in Africa," Comparative Politics 29 (October 1996), p. 36.
49. Catherine Coquery-Vidrovitch, "The Political Economy of the African Peasantry and Modes of Production," in The Political Economy of Contemporary Africa, ed. Peter C. W. Gutkind and Immanuel Wallerstein (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications, 1976), p. 105.
50. Compare to Charles Tilly "War Making and State Making as Organized Crime," in Bringing the State Back In, ed. Peter B. Evans, Dietrich Rueschemeyer, and Theda Skocpol, (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 183.
51. James L. Newman, The Peopling of Africa: A Geographic Interpretation (New Haven:Yale University Press, 1995), pp. 129-130.
52. See the paper of my colleague Miguel Angel Centeno, "Blood and Debt: War and Taxation in Nineteenth Century Latin America," American Journal of Sociology 102 (May 1997): pp. 1565-1605.
53. Max Weber, "Politics as a Vocation," reprinted in From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology ed. H. H. Gerth and C. Wright Mills (New York: Oxford University Press, 1958), p. 78.
54. Representative books include Tilly, Coercion, Capital, and European States;
55. Brian M. Downing, The Military Revolution and Political Change: Origins of Democracy and Autocracy in Early Modern Europe (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992)
56. Barrington Moore, Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy: Lord and Peasant in the Making of the Modern World (Boston: Beacon Press, 1966);
57. Hendrick Spruyt, The Sovereign State and its Competitors (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994).
58. David Strang, "Contested Sovereignty: The Social Construction of Colonial Imperialism," in State Sovereignty as Social Construct, ed. Thomas J. Biersteker and Cynthia Weber (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), p. 34.
59. S. E. Finer, The History of Government from Earliest Times, vol 1. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997), p. 5.
60. John Gledhill, "Legacies of Empire: Political Centralization and Class Formation in the Hispanic-American World," in State and Society: The Emergence and Development of Social Hierarchy and Political Centralization, ed. John Gledhill, Barbara Bender, and Mogens Trolle Larsen (London: Unwin Hyman, 1988), p. 317.
61. David Z. Scheffel, "'There is Always Somewhere to Go . . .' Russian Old Believers and the State," in Outwitting the State, ed. Peter Saklník (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 1989), p. 115.
62. Donald G. McCloud, Southeast Asia: Tradition and Modernity in the Contemporary World (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1995), p. 71.
63. Frederick Jackson Turner, The Frontier in American History (New York: Henry Holt, 1920)
64. Howard Lamar and Leonard Thompson, ed., The Frontier in History: North America and Southern Africa Compared (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1981).
65. Robert Gilpin, War and Change in World Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981), p. 43.
66. W. Arthur Lewis's excellent discussion of fixed costs in his Overhead Costs: Some Essays in Economic Analysis (New York: Augusts M. Kelley, 1970), p. 9.
67. William J. Foltz, "Modernization and Nation-Building: The Social Mobilization Model Reconsidered," in From National Development to Global Community, ed. Richard L. Merritt and Bruce M. Russett (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1981), p. 39.
68. Robert H. Jackson and Carl G. Rosberg, "The Marginality of African States," in African Independence: The First Twenty-Five Years, ed. Gwendolen M. Carter and Patrick O'Meara (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1985), p. 46.
69. Basil Davidson, The Black Man's Burden: Africa and the Curse of the Nation-State (New York: Times Books, 1992), p. 163.
70. Kwamena Bentsi-Enchill, "The Traditional Legal Systems of Africa," in Property and Trust, vol. 6, International Encyclopedia of Comparative Law, (Tübingen: J. C. B. Mohr, 1976), pp. 2-138.
71. Barbara Stallings, "International Influence on Economic Policy: Debt, Stabilization, and Structural Reform," in The Politics of Economic Adjustment ed. Stephan Haggard and Robert R. Kaufman (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992), p. 43.
72. Richard D. Auster and Morris Silver, The State as a Firm: Economic Forces in Political Development (Boston: Martinus Nijhoff, 1979), p. 30.
73. See also Gilpin, War and Change in World Politics, p. 106.
74. See, for instance, Robert O. Keohane, After Hegemony: Cooperation and Discord in the World Political Economy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984), p. 27.
75. Gilpin, War and Change in World Politics, p. 39.
76. Patrick Chabal, Political Domination in Africa: Reflections on the Limits of Power (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), p. 3.
77. See, for instance, J. F. A. Ajayi, "Colonialism: An Episode in African History," in Colonialism in Africa, 1870-1960, ed. L. H. Gann and Peter Duignan vol. 1 (Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 1969), p. 508.
78. Crawford Young, The African Colonial State in Comparative Perspective (New Haven:Yale University Press, 1994), pp. 9-10.
79. Naomi Chazan et al., Politics and Society in Contemporary Africa (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1988), p. 40.
80. "Manifesto of the Belgian-Congolese Elite, 1956," reprinted in The Political Awakening of Africa, ed. Rupert Emerson and Martin Kilson (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1965), p. 99.
81. See, for instance, Chazan et al. Politics and Society in Contemporary Africa;
82. William Tordoff, Government and Politics in Africa, 2nd ed. (London: Macmillian Press, 1993);
83. Richard Hodder-Williams, An Introduction to the Politics of Tropical Africa (London:George Allen and Unwin, 1984).
84. Robert D. Putnam, Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy (Princeton:Princeton University Press, 1993), p. 121.
85. For another argument that state structures are highly path dependent, that is, they reflect events that occurred hundreds of years ago, see Thomas Ertman, Birth of the Leviathan: Building States and Regimes in Medieval and Early Modern Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), pp. 317-8.
86. Christopher Clapham, Africa in the International System: The Politics of State Survival (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), p. 30.
87. Davidson, Black Man's Burden, p. 315.
88. Ali A. Mazrui, "The African State as a Political Refugee," in African Conflict Resolution:The U.S. Role in Peacemaking, ed. David R. Smock and Chester A. Crocker (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace Press, 1995), p. 18.
89. Christopher Clapham, "Boundary and Territory in the Horn of Africa," in African Boundaries: Barriers, Conduits and Opportunities, ed. Paul Nugent and A. I. Asiwaju (London:Pinter, 1996), p. 239.
90. Robert Smith, Kingdoms of the Yoruba, 3rd ed. (London: James Currey, 1988), p. 99.
91. Samuel E. Finer, "State-Building, State Boundaries, and Border Control," Social Science Information 13 (August-October, 1974): p. 79.
92. See, for instance, Max Weber, "Structures of Power," in From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology, ed. H. H. Gerth and C. Wright Mills (England: Routledge, 1991), p. 165.
93. Gilpin, War and Change in World Politics, p. 37.
94. Robert H. Jackson, Quasi-states: Sovereignty, International Relations, and the Third World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), p. 67.
95. For a similar view see E. J. Hobsbawm, The Age of Empire, 1875-1914 (London: Weidenfield and Nicolson, 1987), p. 23.
96. Jack Goody, Technology, Tradition, and the State in Africa (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1971), pp. 16-7.
97. F. H. Hinsley, Sovereignty, 2nd ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), p. 60.
98. John Gerard Ruggie, "Continuity and Transformation in the World Polity: Towards a Neorealist Synthesis," World Politics 35 (January 1983): p. 274.
99. A. Heldrich et al., ed., "Persons," chap. 2 in Persons and Family, vol. 4, International Encyclopedia of Comparative Law (Tübingen: J. C. B. Mohhr, 1995), pp. 291-2.
100. S. E. Finer, The History of Government from Earliest Times, vol. 3. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997), p. 1266.
101. Robert S. Smith, Warfare and Diplomacy in Pre-Colonial West Africa, 2nd ed. (Madison:University of Wisconsin Press, 1976), pp. 141-2.
102. For an important case study, see Joseph K. Adjaye, Diplomacy and Diplomats in Nineteenth Century Asante, 2nd ed. (Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press, 1996).
103. Igor Kopytoff, "The Internal African Frontier: The Making of African Political Culture," in The African Frontier: The Reproduction of Traditional African Societies, ed. Igor Kopytoff (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987), p. 10.
104. Igor Kopytoff and Suzanne Miers, "African 'Slavery' as an Institution of Marginality," in Slavery in Africa, ed. Suzanne Miers and Igor Kopytoff (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1977), p. 11.
105. Goody, Technology, Tradition, and the State in Africa, p. 25.
106. Coquery-Vidrovitch, Africa: Endurance and Change South of the Sahara, p. 14.
107. The classic statement is Esther Boserup, The Conditions of Agricultural Growth: The Economics of Agrarian Change under Population Pressure (New York: Aldine, 1965).
108. Karl A. Wittfogel, Oriental Despotism: A Comparative Study of Total Power (New Haven:Yale University Press, 1957), p. 34
109. Vivienne Shue, The Reach of the State: Sketches of the Chinese Body Politic (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1988), p. 94.
110. Wong, China Transformed, p. 88.
111. Robert W. Harms, River of Wealth, River of Sorrow: The Central Zaire Basin in the Era of the Slave and Ivory Trade, 1500-1891 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1981), p. 111.
112. A. I. Asiwaju, "Migrations as Revolt: The Example of the Ivory Coast and the Upper Volta Before 1945," Journal of African History 17 (1976): p. 578.
113. Thomas J. Barfield, The Nomadic Alternative (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1993), p. 38.
114. Charles G. Hunt, "Some Notes on Indigenous Map-Making in Africa," in Maps and Africa, ed. Jeffrey C. Stone (Aberdeen, U.K.: Aberdeen University, 1994), p. 32.
115. See also Jeffrey C. Stone, A Short History of the Cartography of Africa (New York: Edwin Mellon Press, 1995), p. 5.
116. Hunt, "Some Notes on Indigenous Map-Making in Africa," p. 34.
117. Ivor Wilks, Asante in the Nineteenth Century: The Structure and Evolution of a Political Order (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1975), pp. 191-2.
118. Robert Harms, Games Against Nature: An Eco-Cultural History of the Nunu of Equatorial Africa (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1987), p. 220.
119. C. de B. Webb and J. B. Wright, ed., A Zulu King Speaks: Statements Made by Cetshwayo KaMpande (Pietermaritzburg, South Africa: University of Natal Press, 1987), pp. 1, 27.
120. Spruyt, The Sovereign State and its Competitors, p. 69.
121. See Moore, Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy, p. 169.
122. See Wilks, Asante in the Nineteenth Century, pp. 1-2.
123. The history is reviewed in J. E. Casely Hayford, Gold Coast Native Institutions (London:Frank Cass and Co., 1970), pp. 183-4.
124. John Mensah Sabah, The Fanti National Constitution (London: Frank Cass and Co., 1968), pp. 201-3.
125. Kenneth C. Wylie, Temne Government in Sierra Leone (New York: Africana Publishing Company, 1977), p. 55.
126. Goody, Technology, Tradition, and the State, p. 36.
127. Jan Vansina, Kingdoms of the Savanna (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1966), p. 82.
128. D. N. Beach, The Shona and Zimbabwe, 900-1850 (Gweru, Zimbabwe: Mambo Press, 1984), p. 36;
129. Toyin Falola and Dare Oguntomisin, The Military in Nineteenth Century Yoruba Politics (Ile-Ife, Nigeria: University of Ife Press, 1984), p. 25;
130. S. P. Reyna, Wars without End: The Political Economy of a Precolonial African State (Hanover, N.H.: University Press of New England, 1990), pp. 156-7;
131. Sundiata A. Djata, The Bamana Empire by the Niger (Princeton: Markus Wiener, 1997), p. 23.
132. Kopytoff, "The Internal African Frontier," p. 29.
133. Max Gluckman, Politics, Law, and Ritual in Tribal Society (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1965), pp. 163-4;
134. J. Vansina, "A Comparison of African Kingdoms," Africa 32 (October 1962): p. 330;
135. Reyna Wars without End, p. 67.
136. Charlotte A. Quinn, Mandingo Kingdoms of the Senegambia: Traditionalism, Islam, and European Expansion (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1972), p. 35.
137. Majorie H. Stewart, Borgu and its Kingdoms: A Reconstruction of a Western Sudanese Polity (New York: Edwin Mellon Press, 1993), p. 208.
138. Reyna, Wars without End, p. 165.
139. William Tordoff, "The Ashanti Confederacy," Journal of African History 3 (1962): pp. 402-3.
140. S. I. G. Mudenge, A Political History of Munhumutapa, c. 1400-1902 (Harare, Zimbabwe: Zimbabwe Publishing House, 1988), p. 76.
141. Vansina, Kingdoms of the Savanna, p. 247.
142. Colson, "African Society at the Time of the Scramble," p. 44.
143. Roland Oliver and Anthony Atmore, The African Middle Ages, 1400-1800 (Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 1981), p. 3.
144. Jack Goody, "Decolonisation in Africa: National Politics and Village Politics," Cambridge Anthropology 7 (1982): p. 8.
145. Peter Wickins, An Economic History of Africa: From the Earliest Times to Partition (Cape Town: Oxford University Press, 1987), p. 229.
146. Colson, "African Society at the Time of the Scramble," p. 28.
147. Ivor Wilks, "On Mentally Mapping Greater Asante: A Study of Time and Motion," Journal of African History 33 (1992): pp. 182-3.
148. Peter J. Yearwood, "From Lines on Maps to National Boundaries: The Case of Northern Nigeria and Cameroun," in Maps and Africa, ed. Jeffrey C. Stone (Aberdeen, U.K.:University of Aberdeen, 1994), pp. 36-7. The original citations are listed on the maps.
149. Wilks , "On Mentally Mapping Greater Asante," p. 184.
150. Anne Hilton, The Kingdom of the Kongo (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1985), p. 83.
151. Olfert Dapper, "The Kingdom of Congo," in Central and South African History, trans. Robert O. Collins (New York: Markus Wiener Publishing, 1990), p. 35.
152. Colson, "African Society at the Time of the Scramble," p. 35.
153. David Northrup, Trade Without Rulers: Pre-Colonial Economic Development in South-Eastern Nigeria (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1978), p. 3.
154. John D. Hargreaves, "West African States and the European Conquest," in Colonialism in Africa, 1870-1960, ed. L. H. Gann and Peter Duigan vol. 1 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1969), p. 199.
155. Ivan Hrbek, "Towards a Periodisation of African History," in Emerging Themes of African History, ed. T. O. Ranger (Nairobi: East African Publishing House, 1968), p. 48.
156. Ivor Wilks, Forests of Gold: Essays on the Akan and the Kingdom of the Asante (Athens:Ohio University Press, 1993), p. 96.
157. Quoted in Goody, Technology, Tradition, and the State, p. 54.
158. Davidson, Black Man's Burden, p. 88.
159. Bates, Essays on the Political Economy of Africa, p. 42.
160. A. I. Asiwaju, "The Concept of Frontier in the Setting of States in Pre-Colonial Africa," Presence Africaine 127/128 (1983): p. 45.
161. Aidan W. Southall, Alur Society: A Study of Processes and Types of Domination (Nairobi: Oxford University Press, 1970), p. 248.
162. William A. Shack, introduction to Strangers in African Societies, ed. William A. Shack and Elliott P. Skinner (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1979), p. 8.
163. On currency history, see Northrup, Trade Without Rulers, pp. 157-63
164. Marion Johnson, "The Cowrie Currencies of West Africa, Part One," Journal of African History 11 (1970): pp. 32-7.
165. Okonkwo A. Nwani, "The Quantity Theory in the Early Monetary System of West Africa with Particular Emphasis on Nigeria, 1850-1895," The Journal of Political Economy 83 (February 1975): p. 190.
166. R. A. Adeleye, Power and Diplomacy in Northern Nigeria, 1804-1906 (New York:Humanities Press, 1971), pp. 52-3.
167. Wilks, Forests of Gold, p. 112.
168. Peter Morton-Williams, "The Yoruba Kingdom of Oyo," in West African Kingdoms in the Nineteenth Century, ed. Daryll Forde and P. M. Kaberry (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1967), p. 37.
169. Thomas Hodgkin, "Diplomacy and Diplomats in the Western Sudan," in Foreign Relations of African States, ed. K. Ingham (London: Butterworths, 1974), p. 22.
170. Mattingly, Renaissance Diplomacy, p. 26.
171. Smith, Warfare and Diplomacy in Pre-Colonial West Africa, pp. 10-11.
172. Hodgkin, "Diplomacy and Diplomats in the Western Sudan," p. 20.
173. Young, The African Colonial State, p. 9.
174. Robert H. Jackson, "Sub-Saharan Africa," in States in a Changing World: A Contemporary Analysis, ed. Robert H. Jackson and Alan James (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993), p. 139.
175. Robert H. Jackson, "The Weight of Ideas in Decolonization: Normative Change in International Relations," in Ideas and Foreign Policy, ed. Judith Goldstein and Robert Keohane (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1993), p. 115.
176. Young, The African Colonial State, p. 139.
177. Crawford Young and Thomas Turner, The Rise and Decline of the Zairian State (Madison:University of Wisconsin Press, 1985), p. 36.
178. Mahmood Mamdani, Citizen and Subject: Contemporary Africa and the Legacy of Late Colonialism (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996), p. 37.
179. Terrence Ranger, "The Invention of Tradition in Colonial Africa," in The Invention of Tradition, ed. Eric Hobsbawm and Terrence Ranger (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983).
180. Mamdani, Citizen and Subject, p. 39.
181. Christopher, "Urbanization and National Capitals in Africa," p. 410.
182. Earl Grey, The Colonial Policy of Lord John Russell's Administration, vol. 2 (London:Richard Bentley, 1853), p. 280.
183. Wilks, Asante in the Nineteenth Century p. 12.
184. Select Committee on Africa (Western Coast), Report (London: House of Commons, 1865), p. iii.
185. Africanus B. Horton, Letters on the Political Conditions of the Gold Coast, 2nd ed. (London: Frank Cass and Co., 1970), p. 155.
186. Michael Crowder, West Africa under Colonial Rule (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1968), p. 17.
187. Robin Hallett, "The European Approach to the Interior of Africa in the Eighteenth Century," Journal of African History 4 (1963): p. 191.
188. Quoted in Select Committee on Africa, Report, p. 41.
189. Hallett, "The European Approach to the Interior of Africa," p. 196.
190. Crowder, West Africa under Colonial Rule, p. 48.
191. James Africanus Horton, West African Countries and Peoples (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1969), p. 69.
192. Young, The African Colonial State, p. 152.
193. J. D. Hargreaves, "The Making of the Boundaries: Focus on West Africa," in Partitioned Africans: Ethnic Relations across Africa's International Boundaries, 1884-1984, ed. A. I. Asiwaju (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1985), p. 19.
194. Richard L. Roberts, Two Worlds of Cotton: Colonialism and the Regional Economy in the French Soudan, 1800-1946 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1996), p. 10.
195. See generally Anne Phillips, The Enigma of Colonialism: British Policy in West Africa (London:James Currey, 1989), p. 156.
196. W. Arthur Lewis, Growth and Fluctuations (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1978), p. 212.
197. Thomas Pakenham, The Scramble for Africa (New York: Avon Books, 1991), p. i.
198. Lord Lugard, The Dual Mandate in British Tropical Africa, 5th ed. (London: Frank Cass and Co., 1965), p. 14.
199. J. H. Holdich, The Geographic Journal 18 (1901):especially p. 591.
200. H. F. Morris, "Protection or Annexation? Some Constitutional Anomalies of Colonial Rule," in Indirect Rule and the Search for Justice: Essays in East African Legal History, ed. H. F. Morris and James Read (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972), pp. 42-3.
201. As quoted by Margery Perham, Lugard: The Years of Adventure, 1858-1898 (London:Collins, 1956), p. 88.
202. Ronald Robinson, "The Conference in Berlin and the Future in Africa, 1884-1885," in Bismarck, Europe, and Africa: The Berlin Africa Conference 1884-1885 and the Onset of Partition, ed. Stig Förster, Wolfgang J. Mommsen and Ronald Robinson (London: Oxford University Press, 1988), p. 23.
203. Jan O. M. Broek, "The Problem of 'Natural Frontiers,' " in Frontiers of the Future, ed. Jan O. M Broek (Los Angeles: California University Committee on International Relations, 1941), p.11.
204. S. E. Crowe, The Berlin West African Conference, 1884-1885 (London: Longmans, 1942), p. 177.
205. "General Act of the Berlin Conference," in The Scramble for Africa, ed. R. J. Gavin and J. A. Betley (Ibadan, Nigeria: Ibadan University Press, 1973), pp. 299-300.
206. The relevant diplomatic history is provided by Crowe, The Berlin West African Conference, pp.176, 191.
207. Jörg Fisch, "Africa as terra nullius: The Berlin Conference and International Law," in Bismarck, Europe, and Africa: The Berlin Africa Conference 1884-1885 and the Onset of Partition, Stig Förster, Wolfgang J. Mommsen and Ronald Robinson (London: Oxford University Press, 1988), p. 351.
208. Malcolm Shaw, Title to Territory in Africa (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986), pp. 34, 38.
209. Lugard, The Dual Mandate, p. 12.
210. G. N. Uzoigwe, "Spheres of Influence and the Doctrine of the Hinterland in the Partition of Africa," Journal of African Studies 3 (1976): pp. 196-7.
211. Elizabeth Hopkins, "Partition in Practice: African Politics and European Rivalry in Bufumbira," in Bismarck, Europe, and Africa: The Berlin Africa Conference 1884-1885 and the Onset of Partition, ed. Stig Förster, Wolfgang J. Mommsen, and Ronald Robinson (London: Oxford University Press, 1988), p. 415.
212. M. F. Lindley, The Acquisition and Government of Backward Territory in International Law (London: Longmans, Green, 1926), p. 210.
213. Quoted in Crowder, West Africa under Colonial Rule, p. 117.
214. H. L. Wesseling, Divide and Rule: The Partition of Africa, 1880-1914 (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1996), p. 193.
215. Morris, "Protection or Annexation?" p. 43.
216. See also William Edward Hall, A Treatise on the Foreign Powers and Jurisdiction of the British Crown (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1894), p. 224.
217. Lindley, The Acquisition and Government of Backward Territory, pp. 210-1.
218. See also Friedrich Kratochwil, "Of Systems, Boundaries and Territoriality: An Inquiry into the Formation of the State System," World Politics 39 (October 1986): p. 39.
219. Crowder, West Africa under Colonial Rule, p. 422.
220. Michael Crowder, "West African Resistance," in West African Resistance: The Military Response to Colonial Occupation, 2nd ed., ed. Michael Crowder (London: Hutchinson University Library for Africa, 1978), p. 6.
221. Bruce Berman and John Lonsdale, State and Class, bk. 1 of Unhappy Valley: Conflict in Kenya and Africa (London: James Currey, 1992), p. 18.
222. Lugard, The Dual Mandate, p. 15.
223. J. D. Hargreaves, "West African Boundaries and Partition," p. 319.
224. K. M. Barbour, "A Geographical Analysis of Boundaries in Inter-Tropical Africa," in Essays on African Population, ed. K. M. Barbour and R. M. Prothero (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1961), p. 305.
225. Lugard, The Dual Mandate, p. 23.
226. Phyllis M. Martin, "The Violence of Empire," in History of Central Africa, ed. David Birmingham and Phyllis M. Martin, vol. 2 (London: Longman, 1983), p. 8.
227. Lugard, The Dual Mandate, p. 17.
228. "A. W. L. Hemming: Minute, West African Expansion, 10 November 1890," in British Policy towards West Africa: Select Documents, 1875-1914, ed. C. W. Newbury (Oxford:Clarendon Press, 1971), p. 206.
229. Wesseling, Divide and Rule, pp. 177-8.
230. Lugard, The Dual Mandate, p. 35.
231. Crowder, West Africa under Colonial Rule, p. 6.
232. Wesseling, Divide and Rule, pp. 363-4.
233. Edward W. Blyden, The African Problem and the Method of its Solution (Washington, D.C.: Gibson Brothers, 1890), p. 5.
234. A. H. M. Kirk-Greene, "The Thin White Line: The Size of the British Colonial Service in Africa," African Affairs 79 (1980): p. 26.
235. Coquery-Vidrovitch, Africa: Endurance and Change South of the Sahara, p. 185.
236. Jean Suret-Canale, French Colonialism in Tropical Africa, 1900-1945 (London: C. Hurst, 1971), p. 155.
237. Harms, Games against Nature, p. 5.
238. Peter Geschiere, Village Communities and the State: Changing Relations among the Maka of South-Eastern Cameroon since the Colonial Conquest (London: Kegan Paul, 1982), p. 133.
239. Quoted in Coquery-Vidrovitch, Africa, p.172.
240. Samuel DeCalo, "Regionalism, Political Decay, and Civil Strife in Chad," Journal of Modern African Studies 18 (March 1980): p. 31.
241. Kirk-Green, "The Thin White Line," pp. 39-40.
242. Robert Delavignette, Freedom and Authority in French West Africa (London: Oxford University Press, 1950), p. 18.
243. James Duffy, "Portuguese Africa, 1930 to 1960," in Colonialism in Africa, 1870-1960, ed. L. H. Gann and Peter Duignan, vol. 2 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970), p. 179.
244. W. K. Hancock, Survey of British Commonwealth Affairs, vol. 2, pt. 2 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1942), p. 1.
245. David Killingray, "The Maintenance of Law and Order in British Colonial Africa," African Affairs 85 (1986): pp. 414-5.
246. William F. Gutteridge, "Military and Police Forces in Colonial Africa," in Colonialism in Africa, 1870-1960, ed. L. H. Gann and Peter Duignan, vol. 2 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970), p. 316.
247. Roland Oliver and Anthony Atmore, Africa since 1800, 4th ed. (Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 1984), p. 103.
248. William B. Cohen, "The French Governors," in African Proconsuls: European Governors in Africa, ed. L. H. Gann and Peter Duignan (New York: Free Press, 1978), p. 23.
249. L. H. Gann, "Belgian Administration in the Congo: An Overview," in African Proconsuls:European Governors in Africa, ed. L. H. Gann and Peter Duignan (New York: Free Press, 1978), p. 370.
250. Douglas L. Wheeler, "Portuguese Colonial Governors in Africa, 1870-1974," in African Proconsuls: European Governors in Africa, ed. L. H. Gann and Peter Duignan (New York: Free Press, 1978), p. 425.
251. Hailey, An African Survey (London: Oxford University Press, 1938), pp. 527-8.
252. Robert Delavignette, "The Territorial Administrator in French Black Africa," in Robert Delavignette on the French Empire, ed. Camille Garnier (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1977), p. 21.
253. The typology is developed at some length by Michael Crowder, "The White Chiefs of Tropical Africa," in Colonialism in Africa, 1870-1960, ed. L. H. Gann and Peter Duignan, vol. 2 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970), pp. 329-36.
254. D. Anthony Low and R. Cranford Pratt, Buganda and British Overrule (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1960), pp. 163-76.
255. Michael Crowder, "Indirect Rule-French and British Style," in Historical Problems of Imperial Africa, ed. Robert O. Collins et al. (Princeton: Markus Wiener Publishers, 1994), p. 181.
256. Walt Barrows, Grassroots Politics in an African State (New York: Africana Publishing Company, 1976), p. 79.
257. Anthony Kirk-Greene, "'Le Roi est mort! Vive le roi!': The Comparative Legacy of Chiefs after the Transfer of Power in British and French West Africa," in State and Society in Francophone Africa since Independence, ed. Anthony Kirk-Greene and Daniel Bach (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1995), pp. 19-20.
258. Sundiata A. Djata, The Bamana Empire by the Niger: Kingdom, Jihad, and Colonization, 1712-1920 (Princeton: Markus Wiener, 1996), p. 185.
259. Hailey, African Survey, p. 527.
260. Raymond F. Betts, Assimilation and Association in French Colonial Theory, 1890-1914 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1961), p. 106.
261. Hubert Jules Deschamps, "Association and Indirect Rule," in Historical Problems of Imperial Africa, ed. Robert O. Collins et al. (Princeton: Markus Wiener Publishers, 1994), p. 172.
262. Frederick Lugard, "The Speech at Sokoto," in The Principles of Native Administration in Nigeria, ed. A. H. M. Kirk-Greene (London: Oxford University Press, 1965), p. 43.
263. Frederick Lugard, "Memo no. IX: Native Administration," in Political Memoranda, ed. Frederick Lugard (London: Frank Cass and Co., 1970), p. 298.
264. Mary Bull, "Indirect Rule in Northern Nigeria, 1906-1911," in Essays in Imperial Government, ed. Kenneth Robinson and Frederick Madden (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1963), p. 50.
265. A. I. Asiwaju, "Indigenization of European Colonialism in Africa: Processes in Yorubaland and Dahomey since 1860," in Bismarck, Europe, and Africa: The Berlin Africa Conference 1884-1885 and the Onset of Partition, ed. Stig Förster, Wolfgang J. Mommsen, and Ronald Robinson (London: Oxford University Press, 1988), p. 443.
266. Alhaji Sir Ahmadu Bello, My Life (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1962), p. 19.
267. Joyce Carey, Mister Johnson (London: Michael Joseph, 1961).
268. Ben Okri, The Famished Road (Cape Town, South Africa: David Philip, 1992), p. 3.
269. Barrows, Grassroots Politics in Sierra Leone, p. 3.
270. Hailey, African Survey, p. 1561.
271. Suret-Canale, French Colonialism in Tropical Africa, p. 348.
272. Frederick Lugard, "Memorandum on the Administration of Nigeria submitted to the Secretary of State, May 1905," in Lugard and the Amalgamation of Nigeria, ed. A. H. M. Kirk-Greene (London: Frank Cass and Co., 1968), p. 211.
273. Delavignette, Freedom and Authority in French West Africa, p. 42.
274. William B. Cohen, Rulers of Empire: The French Colonial Service in Africa (Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution Press, 1971), pp. 63-5.
275. Allen F. Isaacman, The Tradition of Resistance in Mozambique: The Zambesi Valley, 1850-1921 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976), p. 108.
276. A. I. Asiwaju, Western Yorubaland under European Rule, 1889-1945 (London: Longman, 1976), p. 141.
277. K. C. Zachariah and Julien Condé, Migration in West Africa: Demographic Aspects (New York: Oxford University Press, 1981), p. 31.
278. Asiwaju, Western Yorubaland under European Rule, p. 147.
279. Charles van Onselen, New Nineveh, vol. 2 of Studies in the Social and Economic History of the Witswatersrand, 1886-1914 (London: Longman, 1982), p. 177.
280. Frederick Cooper, Decolonization and African Society: The Labor Question in French and British Africa (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), p. 11.
281. Carey, Mister Johnson, p. 209.
282. Crowder, "Indirect Rule-French and British Styles," p. 185.
283. Cooper, Decolonization and African Society, p. 33
284. S. Herbert Frankel, Capital Investment in Africa: Its Course and Effects (London:Oxford University Press, 1938), p. 30.
285. See, for instance, C. Jeffries, "The Africanisation of the West African Governments," written in March 1943 and reprinted in Rathbone, British Documents on the End of Empire, p. 20.
286. Martin, "The Violence of Empire," p. 8.
287. Philip Burnham, "'Regroupement' and Mobile Societies: Two Cameroon Cases," Journal of African History 16 (1975): p. 593.
288. Robert Heussler, "British Rule in Africa," in France and Britain in Africa, ed. Prosser Gifford and Wm. Roger Louis (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1971), p. 592.
289. R. D. Pearce, The Turning Point in Africa: British Colonial Policy, 1938-48 (London:Frank Cass and Co., 1982), p. 4.
290. David E. Apter, Ghana in Transition (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1963), p. 151.
291. Lugard, The Dual Mandate, p. 215.
292. Lugard, "Memo no. IX: Native Administration," p. 312.
293. Lugard, The Dual Mandate, p. 213.
294. Hailey, Africa Survey, 1938, pp. 539-40.
295. Peter Geschiere, "Chiefs and Colonial Rule in Cameroon: Inventing Chieftaincy, French and British Style," Africa 63 (1993): pp. 166-7.
296. Pierre Alexandre, "Chiefs, Commandants, and Clerks: Their Relationship from Conquest to Decolonisation in French West Africa," in West African Chiefs: Their Changing Status under Colonial Rule and Independence, ed. Michael Crowder and Obaro Ikime (New York: Africana Publishing, 1970), p. 39.
297. Terrence Ranger, "The Invention of Tradition Revisited: The Case of Colonial Africa," in Legitimacy and the State in Twentieth-Century Africa: Essays in Honour of A. H. M. Kirk-Greene, ed. Terrence Ranger and Olufemi Vaughan (London: Macmillan, 1993), p. 80.
298. Jürgen Osterhammel, Colonialism: A Theoretical Overview (Princeton: Markus Wiener, 1997), p. 68.
299. Jackson, "The Weight of Ideas in Decolonization: Normative Change in International Relations," pp. 117, 125.
300. Ali A. Mazrui, Africa's International Relations: The Diplomacy of Dependency and Change (London: Heinemann, 1977), pp. 35-6.
301. Davidson, Black Man's Burden, pp. 102-3.
302. A. Adu Boahen, African Perspectives on Colonialism (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987), p. 95.
303. W. E. B. Du Bois, The World and Africa (New York: Viking Press, 1947), p. 244.
304. See Jomo Kenyatta, Facing Mt. Kenya (New York: Vintage Books, 1965);
305. Patrice Lumumba, Congo, My Country (New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1962);
306. Robert Mugabe, Our War of Liberation (Gweru, Zimbabwe: Mambo Press, 1983);
307. Barry Munslow, ed., Samora Machel: An African Revolutionary (London: Zed Books, 1985);
308. Ahmed Sékou Touré, Strategy and Tactics of the Revolution (Conakry, Guinea: Press Office, 1978).
309. Julius K. Nyerere, Freedom and Unity (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1967), p. 85.
310. Sylvanus Olympio, "Reflections on Togolese and African Problems," in Africa Speaks, ed. James Duffy and Robert A. Manners (Princeton: D. Van Nostrand, 1961), p. 75.
311. Ali Mazrui, "Africa Entrapped: Between the Protestant Ethic and the Legacy of Westphalia," in The Expansion of International Society, ed. Hedley Bull and Adam Watson (Oxford:Clarendon Press, 1984), p. 289.
312. Delavignette, Freedom and Authority in French West Africa, p. 276.
313. D. Pfaff, "The Capital Cities of Africa with Special Reference to New Capitals Planned for the Continent," Africa Insight 18 (1988): p. 193.
314. Claude E. Welch Jr., Dream of Unity: Pan-Africanism and Political Unification in West Africa (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1966), p. 356.
315. Organization of African Unity, Lagos Plan of Action for the Economic Development of Africa, 1980-2000 (Geneva: International Institute for Labour Studies, 1982), pp. 87, 126.
316. Walter L. Barrows, "Changing Military Capabilities in Black Africa," in Arms and the African, ed. William Foltz and Henry Bienen (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985), p. 101.
317. Organization of African Unity, "O.A.U. Resolution on Border Disputes, 1964," in Basic Documents on African Affairs, ed. Ian Brownlie (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971), p. 361.
318. Organization of African Unity, "Charter of the O.A.U.," in Basic Documents on African Affairs, p. 3.
319. Mark Gallagher, "Government Spending in Africa: A Retrospective," Journal of African Economies 3 (April 1994): pp. 86-7.
320. Talukder Maniruzzaman, Military Withdrawal from Politics: A Comparative Study (Cambridge: Ballinger Publishing Co., 1987), pp. 114-5.
321. Robert Powell, "Anarchy in International Relations Theory: The Neorealist/Neoliberal Debate," International Organization 48 (Spring 1994): p. 333.
322. Charles Tilly, "Reflections on the History of European State-Making," in The Formation of National States in Western Europe, ed. Charles Tilly (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1975), p. 38.
323. Malcolm Anderson, Frontiers: Territory and State Formation in the Modern World (Cambridge, U.K.: Polity Press, 1996), p. 23.
324. Kenneth Waltz, Theory of International Politics (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1979), p. 103.
325. See also Robert Jervis, "Cooperation under the Security Dilemma," World Politics 30 (October 1977): pp. 168-9.
326. Government of Tanzania, "Tanzania Recognizes Biafra," in Crisis and Conflict in Nigeria: A Documentary Sourcebook, 1966-1970, ed. A. H. M. Kirk-Greene, vol. 2 (London:Oxford University Press, 1971), p. 208.
327. James Crawford, The Creation of States in International Law (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1979), p. 262.
328. "The Strategic Importance of Africa," in Foreign Relations of the United States: Africa, 1961-1963, ed. Nina Davis Howland (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1995), p. 331.
329. Steven Erlanger, "U. S. Sees Rwandan Role in Congo Revolt," New York Times, 5 August 1998, p. A8.
330. Gino J. Naldi, "The Case Concerning the Frontier Dispute (Burkina Faso/Republic of Mali): Uti Possidetis in an African Perspective," International and Comparative Law Quarterly 36 (October 1987): pp. 901-2.
331. See Robert H. Jackson and Carl G. Rosberg, "Why Africa's Weak States Persist," World Politics 35 (October 1982): pp. 23-4.
332. William J. Foltz, "The Organization of African Trouble: How and Why it Works and Does not Work," Report 689-AR, U.S. Department of State, mimeograph, September 1983, p. 18.
333. Boutros-Ghali, "The Addis Ababa Charter," pp. 25, 45.
334. Robert H. Jackson, Quasi-States: Sovereignty, International Relations, and the Third World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), p. 25.
335. Kwame Nkrumah, "Tenth Anniversary of the CPP," in Selected Speeches of Dr. Kwame Nkrumah, ed. Samuel Obeng (Accra: Ghana Advance Press, 1973), p. 4.
336. Alhaji Tafawa Balewa, Mr. Prime Minister (Apapa, Nigeria: Nigerian National Press, 1964), p. 37.
337. Nnamdi Azikwe, Zik: A Selection of Speeches of Nnamdi Azikwe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1961), p. 102.
338. Samuel P. Huntington, Political Order in Changing Societies (New Haven: Yale Uni versity Press, 1968), p. 123
339. Charles Tilly, "Reflections on the History of European State-Making," p. 42.
340. Thomas J. Barfield, The Perilous Frontier: Nomadic Empires and China (London: Basil Blackwell, 1989), p. 7.
341. Richard Bean, "War and the Birth of the Nation State," Journal of Economic History 33, (March 1973): p. 220.
342. Michael Mann, "State and Society, 1130-1815: An Analysis of English State Finances," in States, War, and Capitalism: Studies in Political Sociology, ed. Michael Mann (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1988), p. 109.
343. Mann, Sources of Social Power, p. 486.
344. Michael Duffy, "The Military Revolution and the State, 1500-1800," in The Military Revolution and the State, 1500-1800, ed. Michael Duffy, Exeter Studies in History no. 1 (Exeter, U.K.: University of Exeter, 1980), p. 5.
345. Mann, Sources of Social Power, pp. 483-90.
346. Joel S. Migdal, Strong Societies and Weak States: State-Society Relations and State Capabilities in the Third World (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988), p. 274.
347. Edward Ames and Richard T. Rapp, "The Birth and Death of Taxes: A Hypothesis," Journal of Economic History 37, no. 1 (March 1977): p. 177.
348. Tilly, "Reflections on the History of European State-Making," p. 73.
349. Anthony G. Hopkins, An Economic History of West Africa (New York: Columbia University Press, 1973), p. 62.
350. Economic Commission for Africa, Economic Survey of Africa since 1950 (New York:United Nations, 1959), p. 186.
351. Economic Commission for Africa, "Public Finance in African Countries," Economic Bulletin for Africa 1 (June 1961): p. 13.
352. Mark Gersovitz and Chris Paxson, "The Revenues and Expenditures of African Governments," Journal of African Economies 5 (June 1996): p. 206.
353. W. Arthur Lewis, The Evolution of the International Economic Order (Princeton:Princeton University Press, 1978), p. 39.
354. W. Arthur Lewis, Development Planning: The Essentials of Economic Policy (New York:Harper and Row, 1966), p. 115.
355. ECA, Survey of Economic Conditions in Africa, 1970, pp. 327-8.
356. ECA, Survey of Economic Conditions in Africa, 1960-1964, pp. 186-7.
357. ECA, Survey of Economic Conditions in Africa, 1970, p. 141.
358. Jane I. Guyer, "Representation without Taxation: An Essay on Democracy in Rural Nigeria, 1952-1990," African Studies Review 35 (April 1992): p. 43.
359. Paul Collier, "The Marginalization of Africa," International Labour Review 134 (1995): p. 552.
360. Mann, Sources of Social Power, p. 490.
361. Anthony Giddens, A Contemporary Critique of Historical Materialism, vol. 2 (Berkeley:University of California Press, 1987), p. 235.
362. Michael Howard, War and the Nation State (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1978), p. 9. Emphasis in the original.
363. Eiko Ikegami, The Taming of the Samurai: Honorific Individualism and the Making of Modern Japan (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1995), p. 152.
364. See, F. Gunther Eyck, "The Setting," in The Voice of Nations: European National Anthems and their Authors, ed. Gunther Eyck (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1995), p. xiii.
365. "L'Aube Nouvelle," in National Anthems of the World, ed. W. L. Reed and M. J. Bristow, 8th ed. (London: Cassell, 1993), p. 60.
366. Stephen N. Ndeswa, "Citizenship and Ethnicity: An Examination of Two Transition Moments in Kenyan Politics," American Political Science Review 91 (September 1997): p. 602.
367. Tilly, Coercion, Capital, and European States, p. 99.
368. J. R. McCulloch in his 1845 classic, A Treatise on the Principles and Practical Influence of Taxation and the Funding System (Edinburgh: Scottish Economic Society, 1975), p. 155.
369. World Bank, World Development Report 1997 (Washington, DC: Oxford University Press, 1997), p. 42.
370. Club du Sahel, Preparing for the Future: A Vision of West Africa in the Year 2020 (Paris:Club du Sahel, 1995), p. 47.
371. World Bank, World Development Report 1998, p. 232.
372. W. Gordon East and J. R. V. Prescott, Our Fragmented World: An Introduction to Political Geography (London: Macmillan, 1975), p. 57.
373. Preston E. James, "Some Fundamental Elements in the Analysis of the Viability of States," in Essays in Political Geography, ed. Charles A. Fisher (London: Methuen, 1968), p. 35.
374. Friedrich Ratzel, "The Laws of the Spatial Growth of States," in The Structure of Political Geography, ed. Roger E. Kasperson and Julian V. Minghi (Chicago: Aldine Publishing Company, 1969), pp. 24-5.
375. David Friedman, "A Theory of the Size and Shape of Nations," Journal of Political Economy 85 (1977): p. 60.
376. Boris Yeltsin, The Struggle for Russia (New York: Random House, 1994), p. 105.
377. Charles Tilly, European Revolutions, 1492-1992 (Oxford: Blackwell, 1993), p. 32.
378. Joseph R. Strayer, On the Medieval Origins of the Modern State (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1970), p. 4.
379. Charles P. Kindleberger, Multinational Excursions (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1984), p. 28.
380. E. A. G. Robinson, introduction in Economic Consequences of the Size of Nations, ed. E. A. G. Robinson (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1960), p. xiv.
381. Robert Stock, Africa South of the Sahara: A Geographical Interpretation (New York:Guilford Press, 1995), p. 15.
382. Jean Gottmann, The Significance of Territory (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1973), p. 114.
383. This discussion relies heavily on Robert A. Dahl and Edward R. Tufte, Size and Democracy (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1973), pp. 4-7.
384. James R. Scarritt, "Communal Conflict and Contention for Power in Africa South of the Sahara," in Minorities at Risk: A Global View of Ethnopolitical Conflicts, ed. Ted Robert Gurr (Washington, DC: U. S. Institute of Peace, 1993), p. 256.
385. William Easterly and Ross Levine, "Africa's Growth Tragedy: Policies and Ethnic Divisions," Quarterly Journal of Economics 112 (1997): pp. 1219-20.
386. Dunstan M. Wai, "Geoethnicity and the Margin of Autonomy in the Sudan," in State Versus Ethnic Claims: African Policy Dilemmas, ed. Donald Rothchild and Victor A. Olorunsola (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1983), p. 307.
387. See also Francis M. Deng, War of Visions: Conflict of Identities in the Sudan (Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution Press, 1995), p. 9.
388. Robert D. Kaplan, Surrender or Starve: The Wars Behind the Famine (Boulder, CO:Westview Press, 1988), p. 121.
389. Fasil Nahum, Constitution for a Nation of Nations: The Ethiopian Prospect (Trenton: Red Sea Press, 1997), pp. 154-9.
390. Hyden, Beyond Ujamaa, p. 129.
391. Club du Sahel, Preparing for the Future, p. 47.
392. Robin-Edward Poulton and Ibrahim ag Youssouf, A Peace of Timbuktu (New York:United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research, 1998), p. 31.
393. Max Liniger-Goumaz, Small Is Not Always Beautiful: The Story of Equatorial Guinea (London: C. Hurst, 1988), p. 168.
394. Kwamena Bentsi-Enchill, "Do African Systems of Land Tenure Require a Special Terminology?" in African Law and Legal Theory, ed. Gordon R. Woodman and A. O. Obilade (New York: New York University Press, 1995), p. 117.
395. Ray Abrahams, "Law and Order and the State in the Nyamwezi and Sukuma Area of Tanzania," Africa 59 (1989): p. 360.
396. Deschamps, "Association and Indirect Rule," p. 176.
397. Emile A. B. van Rouveroy van Nieuwaal, "Chiefs and African States: Some Introductory Notes and an Extensive Bibliography of African Chieftaincy," Journal of Legal Pluralism and Unofficial Law 25-26 (1987): pp. 3-4.
398. Obafemi Awolowo, Awo: The Autobiography of Chief Obafemi Awolowo (London: Cambridge University Press, 1960), p. 261.
399. Anthony D. Smith, The Ethnic Revival (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981), p. 143.
400. Henry S. Bienen, Tanzania: Party Transformation and Economic Development (Princeton:Princeton University Press, 1970), p. 353.
401. Van Rouveroy van Nieuwaal, "Chiefs and African States," pp. 20-21.
402. Samuel DeCalo, Coups and Army Rule in Africa, 2nd ed. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990), p. 5.
403. Henry S. Bienen, Armies and Parties in Africa (New York: Africana Publishing Company, 1978), p. 218.
404. Emile A. B. van Rouveroy van Nieuwaal, "States and Chiefs: Are Chiefs Mere Puppets?" Journal of Legal Pluralism and Unofficial Law 37-38 (1996): p. 69.
405. Van Rouveroy van Nieuwaal, "Chiefs and African States," p. 26.
406. Trutz von Trotha, "From Administrative to Civil Chieftaincy: Some Problems and Prospects of African Chieftaincy," Journal of Legal Pluralism and Unofficial Law 37-38 (1996): p. 91.
407. George B. N. Ayittey, Indigenous African Institutions (New York: Transnational Publishers, 1991), p. 443.
408. Norman N. Miller, "The Political Survival of Traditional Leadership," Journal of Modern African Studies 6 (1968): p. 195.
409. John W. Bruce, "A Perspective on Indigenous Land Tenure Systems and Land Concentration," in Land and Society in Contemporary Africa, ed. R. E. Downs and S. P. Reyna (Hanover, NH: University of New England Press, 1988), p. 25.
410. Richard Barrows and Michael Roth, "Land Tenure and Investment in African Agriculture:Theory and Evidence," Journal of Modern African Studies 28 (1990): p. 265.
411. Mike Oquaye, "The Role of Traditional Authority in the Politics and Development of Ghana," in The Rights of Indigenous People: A Quest for Coexistence, ed. Bertrus de Villiers (Pretoria, South Africa: Human Sciences Research Council, 1997), p. 88.
412. Kent Elbow et al., Country Profiles of Land Tenure: West Africa (Madison: Land Tenure Center, 1996), p. 4.
413. John W. Bruce et al., Country Profiles of Land Tenure: Southern Africa (Madison: Land Tenure Center, 1997), p. 36.
414. John W. Bruce, Shem E. Migot-Adholla, and Joan Atherton, "The Findings and their Policy Implications: Institutional Adaption or Replacement?" in Searching for Land Tenure Security in Africa, ed. John W. Bruce and Shem E. Migot-Adholla (Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/ Hunt, 1994), pp. 260-1.
415. John M. Cohen, "Land Tenure and Rural Development in Africa," in Agricultural Development in Africa, ed. Robert H. Bates and Michael F. Lofchie (New York: Praeger, 1980), pp. 381-2.
416. Land Tenure Center, Country Profiles of Land Tenure, p. 31.
417. Elbow et al., Country Profiles of Land Tenure, pp. 110-4.
418. Robert H. Bates, "Some Conventional Orthodoxies in the Study of Agrarian Change," World Politics 36 (1984): p. 243.
419. de Loynes, A History of the West African Currency Board, p. 11.
420. Josephine F. Milburn, British Business and Ghanaian Independence (London: University Press of New England, 1977), p. 28
421. Hancock, Survey of British Commonwealth Affairs, p. 265.
422. J. M. Lee, Colonial Development and Good Government (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1967), p. 74.
423. See also Frederick Pedler, The Lion and the Unicorn: A History of the United Africa Company, 1787-1931 (London: Heinemann, 1974), p. 188.
424. G. L. M. Clauson, "The British Colonial Currency System," The Economic Journal 44 (April 1944): p. 7.
425. Yusuf Bangura, Britain and Commonwealth Africa: The Politics of Economic Relations, 1951-1975 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1975), p. 3.
426. John Williamson, What Role for Currency Boards? (Washington, DC: Institute for International Economics, 1995), p. 5.
427. D. K. Fieldhouse, "The Economic Exploitation of Africa: Some British and French Comparisons," in France and Britain in Africa, ed. Prosser Gifford and Wm. Roger Louis (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1971), p. 598.
428. Kwame Nkrumah, I Speak of Freedom (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1976), p. 100.
429. M. M. Huq, The Economy of Ghana: The First Twenty-Five Years since Independence (London: MacMillan Press, 1989), p. 213.
430. J. Clark Leith, Foreign Trade Regimes and Economic Development: Ghana (New York:Columbia University Press, 1974), pp. 5-6.
431. Tony Killick, Development Economics in Action: A Study of Economic Policies in Ghana (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1978), p. 266.
432. Adrian Wood, Global Trends in Real Exchange Rates, 1960 to 1984, (Washington, DC, The World Bank, 1988), pp. 122-31.
433. Douglas Rimmer, The Economies of West Africa (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1984), p. 137.
434. D. K. Fieldhouse, Unilever Overseas: The Anatomy of a Multinational, 1895-1965 (London: Croom Helm, 1978), pp. 599-601.
435. Adeoye A. Akinsanya, "State Strategies toward Nigerian and Foreign Business," in The Political Economy of Nigeria, ed. I. William Zartman (New York: Praeger, 1983), p . 177.
436. D. K. Fieldhouse, Black Africa, 1945-1980: Economic Decolonization and Arrested Development (London: Allen and Unwin, 1986), p. 61.
437. See Thomas J. Biersteker, Multinationals, the State, and Control of the Nigerian Economy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1987), p. 243.
438. Bates, Markets and States in Tropical Africa, pp. 106-19.
439. Nicolas van de Walle, "The Decline of the Franc Zone: Monetary Politics in Francophone Africa," African Affairs 90 (1991), p. 389.
440. Hopkins, Economic History of West Africa, p. 289.
441. David Leith Crum, "Mali and the U.M.O.A.: A Case-Study of Economic Integration," The Journal of Modern African Studies, 2 (September 1984): p. 469.
442. See H. Poynton, "The Currency System in West Africa: Memorandum," reprinted in British Documents on the End of Empire: Ghana, ed. Richard Rathbone, vol. 1 (London:Her Majesty's Stationary Office, 1992), p. 56.
443. Williams, What Role for Currency Boards, p. 23.
444. Ibrahim Elbadawi and Nader Majd, "Adjustment and Economic Performance under a Fixed Exchange Rate: A Comparative Analysis of the CFA Zone," World Development 24 (May 1996): p. 942.
445. David Strasvage, "The CFA Franc Zone and Fiscal Discipline," Journal of African Economies 6 (1996): p. 134
446. Christopher P. Rosenberg, "Fiscal Policy Coordination in the WAEMU after the Devaluation," International Monetary Fund Working Paper, WP/95/25, February 1995, pp. 12-4.
447. Rimmer, The Economies of West Africa, pp. 136-8.
448. He is quoting R. W. Johnson "Guinea," in West African States: Failure and Promise, ed. John Dunn (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978), p. 48.
449. Jean A. P. Clément et al., Aftermath of the CFA Franc Devaluation (Washington, DC:International Monetary Fund, 1996), p. 1.
450. Shantayanan Devarajan and Dani Rodrik, "Do the Benefits of Fixed Exchange Rates Outweigh the Costs? The CFA Zone in Africa," in Open Economies: Structural Adjustment and Agriculture, ed. Ian Goldin and L. Alan Winters (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), p. 83.
451. Jeffrey Herbst and Adebyao Olukoshi, "Nigeria:Economic and Political Reforms at Cross Purposes," in Voting for Reform: Democracy, Political Liberalization, and Economic Adjustment, ed. Stephan Haggard and Steve Webb (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994).
452. Baffour Agyeman-Duah, "Ghana, 1982-6: The Politics of the P. N. D. C.," The Journal of Modern African Studies 25 (December 1987): p. 635.
453. Aristide R. Zolberg, "The Formation of New States as a Refugee-Generating Process," The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 467 (May 1983): p. 28.
454. See W. T. S. Gould, "International Migration in Tropical Africa: A Bibliographic Review," International Migration Review 8 (1974): pp. 353-5.
455. Samir Amin, introduction to Modern Migrations in Western Africa, ed. Samir Amin (London: Oxford University Press, 1974), p. 66.
456. Margaret Peil, "Ghana's Aliens," International Migration Review 8 (1974): p. 367.
457. Olajide Aluko, "The Expulsion of Illegal Aliens from Nigeria: A Study in Nigeria's Decision-Making," African Affairs 84 (October 1985): p. 539.
458. John R. Rogge, "Refugee Migration and Resettlement," in Redistribution of Population in Africa, ed. John I. Clarke and Leszek A. Kosinski (London: Heinemann, 1982), pp. 39-40.
459. Liisa H. Malkki, Purity and Exile: Violence, Memory and National Cosmology among Hutu Refugees in Tanzania (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995), p. 236.
460. J. Gus Liebenow, African Politics: Crisis and Challenge (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1986), p. 182.
461. Richard Sandbrook, The Politics of Basic Needs: Urban Aspects of Assaulting Poverty in Africa (London: Heinemann, 1982), p. 40.
462. Ieuan Ll. Griffiths, The Atlas of African Affairs, 2nd ed. (London: Routledge, 1994), p. 162.
463. Dieter Fuchs and Hans-Dieter Klingemann, "Citizens and the State:A Changing Relationship?" in Citizens and the State, ed. Hans-Dieter Klingemann and Dieter Fuchs (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995).
464. Dominique Schnapper, Community of Citizens: On the Modern Idea of Nationality (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 1997), p. 97.
465. Rogers Brubaker, "Immigration, Citizenship, and the Nation-State in France and Germany," in The Citizenship Debates: A Reader, ed. Gershon Shafir (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1998), p. 152.
466. Virginie Guiraudon, "Citizenship Rights for Non-Citizens: France, Germany, and the Netherlands," in Challenge to the Nation-State: Immigration in Western Europe and the United States, ed. Christian Joppke (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998).
467. Emmeric de Vattel, The Law of Nations (Philadelphia: T. and J. W. Johnson, 1861), pp. 101, 162.
468. Peter H. Schuck and Rogers M. Smith, Citizenship without Consent: Illegal Aliens in the American Polity (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985), p. 91.
469. Ko Swan Sik and Teuku Moh Rhadie, "Nationality and International Law in Indonesian Perspective," in Nationality and International Law in Asian Perspective, ed. Ko Swan Sik (Dordrecht, Netherlands: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1990), p. 143.
470. Visu Sinnadurai, "Nationality and International Law in the Perspective of the Federation of Malaysia," in the same collection, pp. 314-21.
471. Mary Kaldor, "European Institutions, Nation-States, and Nationalism," in Cosmopolitan Democracy: An Agenda for a New World Order, ed. Daniele Archibugi and David Held (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1995), p. 85.
472. Arturo G. Pacho, "Political Integration through Naturalization: A Southeast Asian Perspective," Asia Quarterly 4 (1980): pp. 242-3.
473. Michael Walzer, Spheres of Justice: A Defense of Pluralism and Equality (New York:Basic Books, 1983), p. 62.
474. "Eritrea Strips Jehovah's Witnesses of Citizenship," Reuters, 10 March 1995.
475. Robert J. Mundt, "Ĉote d'Ivoire: Continuity and Change in a Semi-Democracy," in Political Reform in Francophone Africa, ed. John F. Clark and David E. Gardinier (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1997), p. 196.
476. J. H. W. Verzijl, Nationality and Other Matters Relating to Individuals, part 5 of his International Law in Historical Perspective (Leiden, Netherlands: A. W. Sijthoff, 1968), p. 31.
477. Gérard de Rham, "Naturalisation: The Politics of Citizenship Acquisition," in The Political Rights of Migrant Workers in Western Europe, ed. Zig Layton-Henry (London: Sage Press, 1990), p. 184.
478. Kenya Broadcasting Corporation, "Kenyan Citizenship Now Open to Long-Stay Tanzanian Residents," 29 March 1991
479. I. William Zartman, "Putting Things back Together," in Collapsed States: The Disintegration and Restoration of Legitimate Authority, ed. I. William Zartman (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1995), p. 268.
480. Jackson, "Sub-Saharan Africa," p. 154.
481. Spruyt, The Sovereign State and its Competitors, pp. 186-7.
482. Gidon Gottlieb, Nation against State (New York: Council on Foreign Relations, 1993), p. 26.
483. Susan L. Woodward, Balkan Tragedy: Chaos and Dissolution after the Cold War (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1995), p. 144.
484. This is Gottlieb's suggestion, Nation against State, p. 39.
485. See William Reno, Corruption and State Politics in Sierra Leone (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), pp. 128-82.
486. Hans Brunhart, "Statement at the Forty-Seventh Session of the General Assembly," 23 September 1992, p. 3.