Perception as Evidence Accumulation and Bayesian Inference: Insights From Masked Priming

Journal of Experimental Psychology: General

Volumn 137, Issue 3, 2008, Pages 434-455

  Norris, Dennis ^a   Kinoshita, Sachiko ^b,c  

^a MRC COGNITION AND BRAIN SCIENCES UNIT   (United Kingdom)

^b MACQUARIE UNIVERSITY   (Australia)

^c MACQUARIE UNIVERSITY   (Australia)

Author keywords

Bayes; perception; priming; reading

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; ASSOCIATION; ATTENTION; AWARENESS; BAYES THEOREM; DECISION MAKING; HUMAN; PAIRED ASSOCIATE LEARNING; PERCEPTION; REACTION TIME; READING; SEMANTICS;

ATTENTION; AWARENESS; BAYES THEOREM; CUES; DECISION MAKING; HUMANS; JUDGMENT; PAIRED-ASSOCIATE LEARNING; PERCEPTUAL MASKING; REACTION TIME; READING; SEMANTICS;

EID: 51449108628     PISSN: 00963445     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1037/a0012799     Document Type: Article

References (85)

1. Anderson J.R., and Milson R. Human memory: An adaptive perspective. Psychological Review 96 (1989) 702-719
2. Anderson J.R., and Schooler L.J. Reflections of the environment in memory. Psychological Science 2 (1991) 396-408
3. Andrews S. The effect of orthographic similarity on lexical retrieval: Resolving neighborhood conflicts. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 4 (1997) 439-461
4. Bodner G.E., and Masson M.E.J. Masked repetition priming of words and nonwords: Evidence for a nonlexical basis for priming. Journal of Memory and Language 37 (1997) 268-293
5. Bodner G.E., Masson M.E.J., and Richard N.T. Repetition proportion biases masked priming of lexical decisions. Memory & Cognition 34 (2006) 1298-1311
6. Boles D.B., and Clifford J.E. An upper- and lowercase alphabetic similarity matrix, with derived generation similarity values. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers 21 (1989) 579-586
7. Bowers J.S., Vigliocco G., and Haan R. Orthographic, phonological, and articulatory contributions to masked letter and word priming. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 24 (1998) 1705-1719
8. Bruder G. Role of visual similarity in the word superiority effects obtained with the simultaneous matching task. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 4 (1978) 88-100
9. Colombo L. Activation and inhibition with orthographically similar words. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 12 (1986) 226-234
10. Coltheart M., Davelaar E., Jonasson J.T., and Besner D. Access to the internal lexicon. In: Dornic S. (Ed). Attention and performance VI: Proceedings of the Sixth International Symposium on Attention and Performance (1977), Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ 535-555 Stockholm, Sweden, July 28-August 1, 1975
11. Coltheart M., Rastle K., Perry C., Langdon R., and Ziegler J. DRC: A dual route cascaded model of visual word recognition and reading aloud. Psychological Review 108 (2001) 204-256
12. Davis C.J. Factors underlying masked priming effects in competitive network models of visual word recognition. In: Kinoshita S., and Lupker S.J. (Eds). Masked priming: The state of the art (2003), Psychology Press, New York 121-170
13. Davis C.J., and Lupker S.J. Masked identity priming in English: Evidence for lexical inhibition. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 32 (2006) 668-687
14. Dehaene S., Changeux J.-P., Naccahe L., Sackur J., and Sergent C. Conscious, preconscious, and subliminal processing: A testable taxonomy. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 10 (2006) 204-211
15. Dehaene S., Naccache L., Le Clec H.G., Koechlin E., Mueller M., Dehaene-Lambertz G., et al. Imaging unconscious semantic priming. Nature 395 (1998) 597-600
16. Di Lollo V., Enns J.T., and Rensink R.A. Competition for consciousness among visual events: The psychophysics of reentrant visual processes. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 129 (2000) 481-507
17. Draine S.C., and Greenwald A.G. Replicable unconscious semantic priming. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 127 (1998) 286-303
18. Enns J.T. Object substitution and its relation to other forms of visual masking. Vision Research 44 (2004) 1321-1331
19. Enns J.T., and Di Lollo V. Object substitution: A new form of masking in unattended visual locations. Psychological Science 8 (1997) 135-139
20. Enns J.T., and Di Lollo V. What's new in visual masking?. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 4 (2000) 345-352
21. Enns, J. T., Lleras, A., & Moore, C. M. (in press). Object updating: A force for perceptual continuity and scene stability in human vision. In R. Nijhawan (Ed.), Problems of space and time in perception and action. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
22. Enns J.T., and Oriet C. Visual similarity in masking and priming: The critical role of task relevance. Advances in Cognitive Psychology 3 (2007) 211-216. http://www.ac-psych.org Available online at http://www.ac-psych.org
23. Forster K.I. Lexical acquisition and the modular lexicon. Language and Cognitive Processes 1 (1985) 87-108
24. Forster K.I. Form-priming with masked priming: The best match hypothesis. In: Coltheart M. (Ed). Attention & performance XII: The psychology of reading (1987), Erlbaum, Hove, England 127-146
25. Forster K.I. The pros and cons of masked priming. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research 27 (1998) 203-233
26. Forster K.I. Category size effects revisited: Frequency and masked priming effects in semantic categorization. Brain and Language 90 (2004) 276-286
27. Forster K.I., and Davis C. Repetition priming and frequency attenuation in lexical access. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 10 (1984) 680-698
28. Forster K.I., Davis C., Schoknecht C., and Carter R. Masked priming with graphemically related forms: Repetition or partial activation?. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 39 (1987) 211-251
29. Forster K.I., and Forster J.C. DMDX: A Windows display program with millisecond accuracy. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers 35 (2003) 116-124
30. Forster K.I., Mohan K., and Hector J. The mechanics of masked priming. In: Kinoshita S., and Lupker S.J. (Eds). Masked priming: The state of the art (2003), Psychology Press, New York 3-38
31. Frost R., Forster K.I., and Deutsch A. What can we learn from the morphology of Hebrew? A masked-priming investigation of morphological representation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 23 (1997) 829-856
32. Grainger J., and Jacobs A. Orthographic processing in visual word recognition: A multiple read-out model. Psychological Review 103 (1996) 518-565
33. Gregory R.L. Illusion: The phenomenal brain (2007), Oxford University Press, Oxford, England
34. Huber D.E., Shiffrin R.M., Lyle K.B., and Ruys K.I. Perception and preference in short-term word priming. Psychological Review 108 (2001) 149-182
35. Irwin D. Integrating information across saccadic eye movements. Current Directions in Psychological Science 5 3 (1996) 94-100
36. Jacobs A.M., and Grainger J. Testing a semistochastic variant of the interactive activation model in different word recognition experiments. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 18 (1992) 1174-1188
37. Kahneman D., Treisman A., and Gibbs B.J. The reviewing of object files: Object-specific integration of information. Cognitive Psychology 24 (1992) 175-219
38. Kiesel A., Kunde W., and Hoffmann J. Mechanisms of subliminal response priming. Advances in Cognitive Psychology 3 (2007) 307-315
39. Kinoshita S. Masked target priming effects on feeling-of-knowing and feeling-of-familiarity judgments. Acta Psychologica 97 (1997) 183-199
40. Kinoshita S. Additive and interactive effects of word frequency and masked repetition in the lexical decision task. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 13 (2006) 668-673
41. Kinoshita S., and Kaplan L. Priming of abstract letter identities in the letter match task. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology (2008) in press
42. Kinoshita S., and Lupker S.J. Masked priming: The state of the art (2003), Psychology Press, New York
43. Klinger M.R., Burton P.C., and Pitts G.S. Mechanisms of unconscious priming: I. Response competition, not spreading activation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 26 (2000) 441-455
44. Knill D.C., Kersten D., and Yuille A. A Bayesian formulation of visual perception. In: Knill D.C., and Richards W. (Eds). Perception as Bayesian inference (1996), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England 1-21
45. Kouider S., and Dehaene S. Levels of processing during non-conscious perception: A critical review of visual masking. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, B 362 (2007) 857-875
46. Kucera H., and Francis W.N. Computational analysis of present-day American English (1967), Brown University Press, Providence, RI
47. Kunde W., Kiesel A., and Hoffmann J. Conscious control over the content of unconscious cognition. Cognition 88 (2003) 223-242
48. Laming D.R.J. Information theory of choice-reaction times (1968), Academic Press, New York
49. Lleras A., and Moore C.M. When the target becomes the mask: Using apparent motion to isolate the object-level component of object substitution masking. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 29 (2003) 106-120
50. Logan G.D. Repetition priming and automaticity: Common underlying mechanisms?. Cognitive Psychology 21 (1990) 1-35
51. MacLeod A., and Summerfield Q. Quantifying the contribution of vision to speech perception in noise. British Journal of Audiology 21 2 (1987) 131-141
52. Marcel A.J. Conscious and unconscious perception: An approach to the relations between phenomenal experience and perceptual processes. Cognitive Psychology 15 (1983) 238-300
53. Marmurek H.H. Familiarity effects and word unitization in visual comparison tasks. Memory & Cognition 17 (1989) 483-489
54. Martin R.C., and Jensen C.R. Phonological priming in the lexical decision task: A failure to replicate. Memory & Cognition 16 (1988) 505-521
55. Masson M.E.J., and Bodner G.E. A retrospective view of masked priming: Toward a unified account of masked and long-term repetition priming. In: Kinoshita S., and Lupker S.J. (Eds). Masked priming: The state of the art (2003), Psychology Press, New York 57-96
56. Masson M.E.J., and Isaak M.I. Masked priming of words and nonwords in a naming task: Further evidence for a nonlexical basis for priming. Memory & Cognition 27 (1999) 399-412
57. McClelland J.J.L., and Rumelhart D.E. An interactive activation model of context effects in letter perception: Part I. An account of basic findings. Psychological Review 88 (1981) 375-407
58. McGurk H., and MacDonald T. Hearing lips and seeing voices. Nature 264 (1976) 746-748
59. Middleweerd M.J., and Plomp R. The effect of speech reading on the speech-reception threshold of sentences in noise. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 82 6 (1987) 2145-2147
60. Naccache L., and Dehaene S. Unconscious semantic priming extends to novel unseen stimuli. Cognition 80 (2001) 223-237
61. Neely J.H. Semantic priming effects in visual word recognition: A selective review of current findings and theories. In: Besner D., and Humphreys G.W. (Eds). Basic processes in reading: Visual word recognition (1991), Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ 264-336
62. Norris D. The effects of frequency, repetition and stimulus quality in visual word recognition. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 36A (1984) 507-518
63. Norris D. The Bayesian reader: Explaining word recognition as an optimal Bayesian decision process. Psychological Review 113 (2006) 327-357
64. Norris, D. G. Putting it all together: A unified account of word recognition and reaction-time distributions. Manuscript submitted for publication.
65. Norris D., and McQueen J.M. Shortlist B: A Bayesian model of continuous speech recognition. Psychological Review 117 (2008) 357-395
66. Perea M., Fernandez L., and Rosa E. El papel del status lexico y de la frecuencia del estimulo-senal en la condition no relacionada con la tenica de presentacion enmascarada del estimulo-senal [The role of the lexical status and the frequency of the unrelated prime in the masked priming technique]. Psicologica 19 (1998) 311-319
67. Perea M., and Gotor A. Associative and semantic priming effects occur at very short stimulus-onset asynchronies in lexical decision and naming. Cognition 62 (1997) 223-240
68. Perea M., and Rosa E. The effects of orthographic neighborhood in reading and laboratory identification tasks: A review. Psicologica 21 (2000) 237-340
69. Proctor R.W. A unified theory for matching-task phenomena. Psychological Review 88 (1981) 291-326
70. Raaijmakers J.G. A further look at the "language-as-fixed-effect fallacy.". Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology 57 3 (2003) 141-151
71. Raaijmakers J.G.W., Schrijnemakers J.M.C., and Gremmen F. How to deal with the "language-as-fixed-effect fallacy": Common misconceptions and alternative solutions. Journal of Memory and Language 41 3 (1999) 416-426
72. Rajaram S. Remembering and knowing: Two means of access to the personal past. Memory & Cognition 21 (1993) 89-102
73. Rastle K., Davis M.H., Marslen-Wilson W.D., and Tyler L.K. Morphological and semantic effects in visual word recognition: A time-course study. Language and Cognitive Processes 15 (2000) 507-537
74. Ratcliff R. A theory of memory retrieval. Psychological Review 85 (1978) 59-108
75. Scarborough D.L., Cortese C., and Scarborough H.S. Frequency and repetition effects in lexical memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 3 (1977) 1-17
76. Sereno J.A. Graphemic, associative, and syntactic priming effects at brief stimulus onset asynchrony in lexical decision and naming. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 17 (1991) 459-477
77. Simons D.J., Mitroff S.R., and Franconeri S.L. Scene perception: What we can learn from visual integration and change detection. In: Peterson M., and Rhodes G. (Eds). Perception of faces, objects, and scenes: Analytic and holistic processes (2003), Oxford University Press, London 335-355
78. Stone M. Models of choice reaction time. Psychometrika 25 (1960) 251-260
79. Van Heuven W.J., Dijkstra T., Grainger J., and Schreifers H. Shared neighborhood effects in masked orthographic priming. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 8 (2001) 96-101
80. Vorberg D., Mattler U., Heinecke A., Schmidt T., and Schwarzbach J. Different time courses for visual perception and action priming. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 100 (2003) 6275-6280
81. Wagenmakers E.-J., Ratcliff R., Gomez P., and McKoon G. A diffusion model account of criterion shifts in the lexical decision task. Journal of Memory and Language 58 (2008) 140-159
82. Wagenmakers E.-J., Zeelenberg R., Steyvers M., Shiffrin R., and Raaijmakers J.G.W. Nonword repetition in lexical decision: Support for two opposing processes. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 57A (2004) 1191-1210
83. Weidemann C.T., Huber D.E., and Shiffrin R.M. Confusion and compensation in visual perception: Effects of spatiotemporal proximity and selective attention. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 31 (2005) 40-61
84. Weiss Y., Simoncelli E.P., and Adelson E.H. Motion illusions as optimal percepts. Nature Neuroscience 5 (2002) 598-604
85. Zeelenberg R., Wagenmakers E.J., and Shiffrin R.M. Nonword repetition priming in lexical decision reverses as a function of study task and speed stress. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 30 (2004) 270-277