Dealing with waterborne disease in Canada: Challenges in the delivery of safe drinking water

Reviews on Environmental Health

Volumn 23, Issue 2, 2008, Pages 119-133

  Maal Bared, R ^a   Bartlett, K H ^a   Bowie, W R ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA   (Canada)

Author keywords

Monitoring; Small water distribution systems; Waterborne disease outbreaks; Well water

Indexed keywords

DRINKING WATER; RAIN; WELL WATER;

BACTERIUM IDENTIFICATION; BIOFILM; CANADA; CERTIFICATION; ENVIRONMENTAL ECONOMICS; ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH; ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING; EPIDEMIC; EPIDEMIOLOGICAL DATA; FLUID INTAKE; GOVERNMENT; HIGH TEMPERATURE PROCEDURES; MICROBIAL CONTAMINATION; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE; RESPONSIBILITY; REVIEW; RISK MANAGEMENT; WATER CONTAMINATION; WATER MANAGEMENT; WATER QUALITY; WATER SUPPLY; WATER TREATMENT; WEATHER;

EID: 50049122205     PISSN: 00487554     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1515/REVEH.2008.23.2.119     Document Type: Review

References (70)

1. Frerichs RR. History, maps, and the Internet: UCLA's John Snow site. Society of Cartographers Bulletin 2000;34(2):3-7.
2. World Health Organization. Water, sanitation and hygiene links to health: Fact and Figures 2004. Retrieved 4 January 2007. Available at: http://www.who.int/water sanitation health/publications/facts2004/en/ index.html
3. Murray CJL, Lopez AD. Global health statistics: Global burden of disease and injury series (Volume 2). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1996.
4. Huffman DE, Quinter-Betancourt W, Rose J. Emerging waterbome pathogens. In: Mara D, Horan N. eds. Handbook for water and wastewater microbiology. London: Elsevier Press 2003;193-209.
5. Walkerton Commission of Inquiry. The Report of the Walkerton Inquiry, Part One: The events of May 2000 and related 2002. Led by Honourable Dennis O'Connor. Published January 2002. Retrieved 16 August 2007. Available at: http//www.attorneygeneral.jus.gov.on.ca/english/about/ pubs/walkerton/part1/
6. Stirling R, Aramini J, Ellis A, Lim G, Meyers R, Fleury M, et al. Waterborne Cryptosporidiosis outbreak, North Battleford, Saskatchewan, Spring 2001. Canadian Communicable Disease Report 2001;27(22):185-92.
7. Losito D. Report from the field: Vancouver's boil advisory 2006. Disaster Management Canada 2006; 1(1): 19-20. Retrieved 5 June 2007. Available at: http://www.ccep.ca/dmc/archive/dmcvlil.pdf
8. Schuster CJ, Ellis AG, Robertson WJ, Charron DF, Aramini JJ, Marshall BJ, et al. Infectious disease outbreaks related to drinking water in Canada, 1974-2001. Can J Public Health 2005;96 (4):254-8.
9. Peterson HG. Rural drinking water and water bome illness. In: Maintaining drinking water quality, lessons from the prairies and beyond. Proceedings of the Ninth National Conference on Drinking water. Regina, Saskatchewan: Canadian Water and Wastewater Association, 2000:162-91.
10. Kendall PR. Progress on the action plan for safe drinking water in British Columbia: From the office of the provincial health officer. February 2007. Retrieved 22 September 2007. Available at: http://www.healthservices.gov.bc.ca/pho/pdf/WaterReport.pdf
11. Walkerton Commission of Inquiry. The Report of the Walkerton Inquiry, Part Two: A strategy for safe drinking water 2002. Led by Honourable Dennis O'Connor. Published May 2002. Retrieved 16 August 2007. Available at: http://www.attorneygeneral.jus.gov.on.ca/english/about/pubs/ walkerton/part2/
12. North Battleford Commission of Inquiry. North Battleford Inquiry 2002. Led by Honorable Justice Robert D. Laing. Retrieved 16 August 2007. Available at: http://www.northbattlefordwaterinquiry.ca/final/ pdfdocs.html
13. Conservation Ontario. Source water protection 2005. Retrieved 5 June 2007. Available at: http//conservation-ontario.on.ca/ sourceprotection/index.html.
14. Holme R. Drinking water contamination in Walkerton, Ontario: Positive resolutions from a tragic event. Water Sci Technol 2003;47(3):1-6.
15. Hrudey SE, Payment P, Huck PM, Gillham RW, Hrudey EJ. A fatal waterbome disease epidemic in Walkerton, Ontario: Comparison with other waterbome outbreaks in the developed world. Water Sci Technol 2003;47(3):7-14.
16. Hrudey SE, Hrudey EJ. Walkerton and North Battleford - key lessons for public health professionals. Can J Public Health 2002;93(5):332-3.
17. Chang P, Clary J. Source Water Protection: A wise investment in California's drinking water. Clean Water Action and the Clean Water Fund, July 2005. Retrieved 22 September 2007. Available at: http://www.cleanwateraction.org/ca/SourceWaterProtection.pdf
18. Health Canada. From source to tap: A multiple barrier approach to safe drinking water. Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment, May 16, 2002. Retrieved 21 September 2007. Available at: http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ewh-semt/alt_formats/hecssesc/pdf/water-eau/ tap-source-robinet/tap-source-robinet e.pdf
19. Ribaudo MO, Horan RD, Smith ME. Economics of water quality protection from nonpoint sources: Theory and practice. United States Department of Agriculture. Agricultural Economic Report No. 782,1999. Retrieved 22 September 2007. Available at: http://ageconsearch.umn.edu/bitstream/ 123456789/1310/1/ae990782.pdf
20. Bartram J, Howard G. Drinking water standards for the developing world. Emerging waterbome pathogens. In: Mara D, Horan N, eds. Handbook for water and wastewater microbiology. London: Elsevier Press, 2003;221-41.
21. Glasner A, McKee L. Pathogen occurrence and analysis in relation to water quality attainment in San Francisco Bay Area watersheds. San Francisco Estuary Institute Report, San Francisco, USA, December 2002. Retrieved January 2007. Available at: http://www.sfei.oriz/watersheds/ reports/Pathogens/Pathogenlitrevv6.pdf
22. Warrington PD, Johnson TR. Water quality criteria for microbiological indicators: An overview report. British Columbia Ministry of Environment (Water, Air and Climate Change Branch) 2001. Retrieved 6 January 2007. Available at: http://www.env.gov.bc.ca/wat/wq/BCguidelines/ microbiology/microbiology.html
23. Harwood VJ, Levine AD, Scott TM, Chivukula V, Lukasik J, Farrah SR, et al. Validity of the indicator organism paradigm for pathogen reduction in reclaimed water and public health protection. Appl Environ Microbiol 2005;71(6): 3163-70.
24. Lemarchand K, Lebaron, P. Occurrence of Salmonella spp and Cryptosporidium spp in a French coastal watershed: Relationship with fecal indicators. FEMS Microbiol Lett 2003;218(I): 203-9.
25. Lindquist HD. Emerging pathogens of concern in drinking water. In: Linireddy S, American Society of Civil Engineers Water Supply Engineering Technical Committee, eds. Control of micro-organisms in drinking water. Virginia: American Society of Civil Engineers Press, 2002.
26. Health Canada. Protozoa. In: Canadian guidelines for drinking water quality: Supporting documents. Health Canada, Ottawa 2004. Retrieved 6 January 2007. Available at: http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ewhsemt/pubs/ water-eau/doc_sup-appui/protozoa/index_e.html
27. Curriero FC, Patz JA, Rose 113, Lele S. The association between extreme precipitation and waterborne disease outbreaks in the United States, 1948-1994. Am J Public Health 2001;91(8):1194-9.
28. Auld H, Maciver D, Klaassen J. Heavy rainfall and waterborne disease outbreaks: The Walkerton example. J Toxicol Environ Health A 2004;67(20-22): 1879-87.
29. Bridgman SA, Robertson RM, Syed Q, Speed N, Andrews N, et al. Outbreak of cryptosporidiosis associated with a disinfected groundwater supply. Epidemiol Infect 1995; 115:555-66.
30. Decho AW. Microbial biofilms in intertidal systems: An overview. Continental Shelf Research 2000; 20:1257-73.
31. Ohashi A, Harada H. A novel concept for evaluation of biofilm adhesion strength by applying tensile force and shear force. Water Sci Technol 1996;34(5-6):201-11.
32. Korber DR, Lawrence JR, Lappin-Scott HM, Costerton JW. Growth of microorganisms on surfaces. In: Lappin-Scott HM, Costerton JM, Lynch J eds. Microbial Biofilms. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press 1995; 15-45.
33. Flemming HC, Wingender J. Relevance of microbial extracellular polymeric substances (EPSs) - Part I: Structural and ecological aspects. Water Sci Technol 2001;43(6):1-8.
34. Wimpenny JW, Peters A, Scourfield M. Modeling spatial gradients. In: Charackfis WG, Wilderer PA eds. Structure and function of biofilms. Chichester: John Wiley, 1989; 111-27.
35. Rosen BH. Waterborne pathogens in agricultural watersheds. United States Department of Agriculture, Watershed Science Institute Technical Note 2, Burlington, 2000. Retrieved July 2007. Available at: http://forestry.berkeley.edu/rangelandwq/pdfs/Atwillwssitn21.pd
36. Barbeau J, Gaulthier C, Payment P. Biofilms, infectious agents and dental unit waterlines:a review. Can J Microbiol 1998;44:1019-28.
37. Crabill C, Donald R, Snelling J, Foust R, Southam G. The impact of sediment fecal coliform reservoirs on seasonal water quality in Oak Creek, Arizona. Water Res 1999;33(9):2163-71.
38. Obiri-Danso K, Jones K. Intertidal sediments as reservoirs for hippurate negative campylobacters, salmonellae and fecal indicators in three EU recognised bathing waters in North West England. Water Res 2000;34(2):519-27.
39. US Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA). FY2002 Public water system inventory data. Retrieved 18 January 2007. Available at http://www.epa.gov/safewater/data/pivottables.html
40. Health Canada. Guidelines for Canadian drinking water quality (Sixth edition). Ministry of Health, Ottawa, Ontario, 1996.
41. US Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA). Much effort and resources needed to help small drinking water systems overcome challenges. Report number 2006-P-00026, 2006. Retrieved June 6, 2007. Available at: http://www.epa.gov/org/reports/2006/20060530-2006-P-00026.pdf
42. Ford T, Camper A, Rupp G, Butterfield P, Shanklin D. Protecting public health in small water systems: Report of an international colloquium 2005. Bozeman, Montana: Montana Water Centre.
43. Dziegielewski B, Bik T. Technical assistance needs and research priorities for small community water systems. J Contemp Water Res Educ 2004; 128:13-20.
44. Geldreich EE. Better intervention strategies are needed to reduce the risk of waterborne outbreaks. J Water Health 2005;3:197-208.
45. Smith DW, Guest RK, Svrcek CP, Farahbakhsh K. Public health evaluations for drinking water systems on First Nations reserves in Alberta Canada. J Environ Eng Sci 2006;5:S1-S17.
46. Swain H, Lazar F, Pine J. Watertight: The case for change in Ontario's water and wastewater sector. Ministry of Public Infrastructure Renewal, Toronto, Ontario 2005. Retrieved 19 January 2007. Available at: Http://www.waterpanel.ontario.ca/mbs/pir/Waterpan.nsf/WebContentView/ WatertightReportBW-EN/$FILE/WatertightReportBW_EN.pdf
47. Jaykus L. Epidemiology and detection as options for control of viral and parasitic foodborne diseases. Emerging Infect Dis 1997;3(4):529-39.
48. Payment P, Siemiatycki J, Richardson L, Renaud G, Franco E, Prevost M. A prospective epidemiological study of gastrointestinal health effects due to the consumption of drinking water. Int J Environ Health Res 1997;7:5-31.
49. Colford JM, Wade TJ, Sandhu SK, Wright CC, Lee S, Shaw, S. A randomized controlled trial of in-home drinking water intervention to reduce gastrointestinal illness. Am J Epiderniol 2005; 161: 472.
50. International Life Sciences Institute (ILSI). Revised framework for microbial risk assessment. Washington, DC: ILSI Publication Report 2000. Retrieved 22 September 2007. Available at: http://rsi.ilsi.org/file/ mrabook.pdf
51. Eisenberg, JN, Hubbard A, Wade TJ, Sylvester MD, LeChevallfier MW, Levy DA, et al. Inferences drawn from a risk assessment compared directly with a randomized trial of a home drinking water intervention. Environ Health Perspect 2006; 114 (8):1199-204.
52. Craun MF, Craun GF, Calderon RL, Beach MJ. Waterbome outbreaks reported in the United States. J Water and Health 2006;4(Suppl. 2):19-30.
53. Berkelman RL. Emerging infectious diseases in the United States, 1993. J Infec Dis 1994;170(2): 272-7.
54. Berger M, Shiau R, Weintraub JM. Review of syndromic surveillance: Implications for water-borne disease detection. J Epidemiol Community Health 2006;60(6):543-50.
55. Copes, R. What physicians can do to prevent illnesses related to drinking water? Can Med Assoc J 2006;175(9):1157.
56. Heffernan R, Mostashari F, Das D, Besculides M, Rodriguez C, Greenko J, et al. New York City syndromic surveillance systems. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2004;53 Suppl: 23-7.
57. Rolland E, Moore KM, Robinson VA, Mc Guinness D. Using Ontario's "Telehealth" health telephone helpline as an early-waming system: A study protocol. BMC Health Service Research 2006;6(10). Available at http://www.biomedcentral.com/1472-6963/6/10
58. Levallois P, Grondin J, Gingras S. Evaluation of consumer attitudes on taste and tap water alternatives in Quebec. Water Sci Technol 1999;40 (6):135-9.
59. Auslander BA, Langlois PH. Toronto tap water: Perception of its quality and use of alternatives. Can J Public Health 1993;84(2):99-102.
60. Jones AQ, Dewey CE, Dord C, Majowicz SE, McEwen SA, Waltner-Toews D. Drinking water consumption patterns of residents in a Canadian community. J Water Health 2006;4(1):125-38.
61. Warburton D, Harrison B, Crawford C, Foster R, Fox C, Gour L, et al. A further review of the microbiological quality of bottled water sold in Canada: 1992-1997 survey result. Int J Food Microbiol 1998;39(3):221s-226s.
62. American Water Works Association Research Foundation (AWWARF). consumer attitude survey on water quality issues. Denver, Colorado: AWWARF, 1993.
63. Health Canada. Boil water advisories and boil water orders 2006. Retrieved 16 January 2007. Available at: http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ ewh-semt/water-eau/drink-potab/boil-ebuilition e.html
64. Angulo FJ, Tippen S, Sharpe DJ, Payne BJ, Collier C, Hill JE, et al. A community waterborne outbreak of Salmonellosis and the effectiveness of a boil water order. Am J Public Health 1997; 87(4):580-584.
65. O'Donnell M, Platt C, Aston R. Effect of a boil water notice on behaviour in the management of a water contamination incident. Commun Dis Public Health 2000;3(I):56-9.
66. Willocks LJ, Sufi F, Wall R, Seng C, Swan AV. Compliance with advice to boil drinking water during an outbreak of cryptosporidiosis - Outbreak Investigation Team. Commun Dis Public Health 2000;3(2):137-8.
67. Geldreich EE. Reinventing microbial regulations for safer water supplies. In: Kay D, Fricker C. eds. Coliforms and E. coli: Problems or solutions. Cambridge, UK: The Royal Society of Chemistry 1997;218-35.
68. Said B, Wright F, Nichols GL, Reacher M, Rutter M. Outbreaks of infectious disease associated with private drinking water supplies in England and Wales 1970-2000. Epidemiol Infec 2003; 130:469.
69. Jones AQ, Dewey CE, Dor6 C, Majowicz SE, McEwen SA, Waltner-Toews D, et al. Public perception of drinking water from private water supplies: Focus group analyses. BMC Public Health 2005;9(5):129.
70. Jones AQ, Dewey CE, Doré C, Majowicz SE, McEwen SA, Waltner-Toews D, et al. Public perceptions of drinking water:a postal survey of residents with private water supplies. BMC Public Health 2006;6:94.