The vicarious learning pathway to fear 40 years on

Clinical Psychology Review

Volumn 28, Issue 7, 2008, Pages 1249-1265

  Askew, Chris ^a   Field, Andy P ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF SUSSEX   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Anxiety; Fear; Vicarious learning

Indexed keywords

ANXIETY; CLINICAL ASSESSMENT; COGNITION; CONDITIONING; ELECTROMYOGRAPHY; FEAR; HUMAN; LEARNING; MONKEY; NONHUMAN; QUESTIONNAIRE; REVIEW; SELF REPORT; SKIN CONDUCTANCE; STATE DEPENDENT LEARNING; STIMULUS RESPONSE; STRUCTURED INTERVIEW; THEORETICAL MODEL;

FEAR; HUMANS; LEARNING; PHOBIC DISORDERS;

EID: 50049085800     PISSN: 02727358     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.cpr.2008.05.003     Document Type: Review

References (108)

1. Askew C., and Field A.P. Vicarious learning and the development of fears during childhood. Behaviour Research & Therapy 45 (2007) 2616-2627
2. Askew, C., Kessock-Philip, H., & Field, A. P., (in press). Interactions between the indirect pathways to fear in children: What happens when verbal threat information and vicarious learning combine? Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy.
3. Bandura A. Principles of behavior modification (1969), Holt, Rineheart and Winston, Inc, New York
4. Bandura A., and Rosenthal T.L. Vicarious classical conditioning as a function of arousal level. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 3 (1966) 54-62
5. Bandura A., Ross D., and Ross S.A. Transmission of aggression through imitation of aggressive models. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 63 (1961) 575-582
6. Berger S.M. Conditioning through vicarious instigation. Psychological Review 69 (1962) 450-466
7. Brown I. Effects of perceived similarity on vicarious emotional conditioning. Behaviour Research & Therapy 12 (1974) 165-173
8. Cartwright-Hatton S., McNicol K., and Doubleday E. Anxiety in a neglected population: Prevalence of anxiety disorders in pre-adolescent children. Clinical Psychology Review 26 (2006) 817-833
9. Cook M., and Mineka S. Second-order conditioning and overshadowing in the observational conditioning of fear in monkeys. Behaviour Research & Therapy 25 (1987) 349-364
10. Cook M., and Mineka S. Observational conditioning of fear to fear-relevant versus fear-irrelevant stimuli in rhesus monkeys. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 98 (1989) 448-459
11. Cook M., and Mineka S. Selective associations in the observational conditioning of fear in rhesus monkeys. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes 16 (1990) 372-389
12. Cook M., Mineka S., Wolkenstein B., and Laitsch K. Observational conditioning of snake fear in unrelated rhesus monkeys. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 94 (1985) 591-610
13. Craig K.D., and Lowery H.J. Heart-rate components of conditioned vicarious autonomic responses. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 11 (1969) 381-387
14. Davey G.C.L. UCS revaluation and conditioning models of acquired fears. Behaviour Research and Therapy 27 (1989) 521-528
15. Davey G.C.L. Classical conditioning and the acquisition of human fears and phobias: A review and synthesis of the literature. Advances in Behavior Research & Therapy 14 (1992) 29-66
16. Davey G.C.L. Preparedness and phobias: Specific evolved associations or a generalized expectancy bias?. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 18 (1995) 289-325
17. Davey G.C.L. Conditioning model of phobias. In: Davey G.C.L. (Ed). Phobias: A handbook of theory and research and treatment (1997), Wiley, Chichester
18. Davey G.C.L. 'Non-specific' rather than 'nonassociative' pathways to phobias: A commentary on Poulton and Menzies. Behaviour Research and Therapy 40 (2002) 151-158
19. Del Russo J.E. Observational learning of discriminative avoidance in hooded rats. Animal Learning & Behavior 3 (1975) 76-80
20. De Rosnay M., Cooper P.J., Tsigaras N., and Murray L. Transmission of social anxiety from mother to infant: An experimental study using a social referencing paradigm. Behaviour Research and Therapy 44 (2006) 1165-1175
21. Di Nardo P.A., Guzy L.T., Jenkins J.A., Bak R.M., Tomasi S.F., and Copland M. Etiology and maintenance of dog fears. Behaviour Research and Therapy 26 (1988) 241-244
22. Doogan S., and Thomas G.V. Origins of fear of dogs in adults and children: The role of conditioning processes and prior familiarity with dogs. Behavior Research and Therapy 30 (1992) 387-394
23. Dubi, K., Rapee, R. M., Emerton, J., & Schniering, C. (2008). Maternal modeling and the acquisition of fear and avoidance in toddlers: Influence of stimulus preparedness and child temperament. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36, 499-512.
24. Egliston K.A., and Rapee R.M. Inhibition of fear acquisition in toddlers following positive modeling by their mothers. Behaviour Research and Therapy 45 (2007) 1871-1882
25. Ehlers A., Hofmann S.G., Herda C.A., and Roth W.T. Clinical characteristics of driving phobia. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 8 (1994) 323-339
26. Feinman S. Social referencing in infancy. Merill-Palmer Quarterly 28 (1982) 445-470
27. Field A.P. Is conditioning theory a useful framework for studying the development of phobias. Clinical Psychology Review 26 (2006) 857-875
28. Field A.P. The behavioral inhibition system and the verbal information pathway to children's fears. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 115 (2006) 742-752
29. Field A.P. Watch out for the beast: Fear information and attentional bias in children. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology 35 (2006) 337-345
30. Field A.P., Argyris N.G., and Knowles K.A. Who's afraid of the big bad wolf: a prospective paradigm to test Rachman's indirect pathways in children. Behaviour Research and Therapy 39 (2001) 1259-1276
31. Field A.P., and Davey G.C.L. Conditioning models of childhood anxiety. In: Silverman W.K., and Treffers P.A. (Eds). Anxiety disorders in children and adolescents: Research, assessment and intervention (2001), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
32. Field A.P., and Lawson J. Fear information and the development of fears during childhood: Effects on implicit fear responses and behavioral avoidance. Behaviour Research and Therapy 41 (2003) 1277-1293
33. Field A.P., and Storksen-Coulson A. The interaction of pathways to fear in childhood anxiety: A preliminary study. Behaviour Research and Therapy 45 (2007) 3051-3059
34. Forsyth J.P., and Chorpita B.F. Unearthing the nonassociative origins of fears and phobias: A rejoinder. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry 28 (1997) 297-305
35. Gerull F.C., and Rapee R.M. Mother knows best: Effects of maternal modeling on the acquisition of fear and avoidance behaviour in toddlers. Behaviour Research and Therapy 40 (2002) 279-287
36. Gibson E.J., and Walk R.D. The visual cliff". Scientific American 202 4 (1960) 64-71
37. Globisch J., Hamm A.O., Esteves F., and Öhman A. Fear appears fast: Temporal course of startle reflex potentiation in animal fearful subjects. Psychophysiology 36 (1999) 66-75
38. Graham J., and Gaffan E.A. Fear of water in children and adults: Etiology and familial effects. Behaviour Research and Therapy 35 (1997) 91-108
39. Green G., and Osborne J.G. Does vicarious instigation provide support for observational learning theories? A critical review. Psychological Bulletin 97 (1985) 3-17
40. Hekmat H. Origins and development of human fear reactions. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 1 (1987) 197-218
41. Hofmann S.G., Ehlers A., and Roth W.T. Conditioning theory a model for the etiology of public speaking anxiety?. Behaviour Research and Therapy 33 (1995) 567-571
42. Hornik R., Risenhoover N., and Gunnar M.R. The effect of maternal positive, neutral, and negative affective communications on infant responses to new toys. Child Development 58 (1987) 937-944
43. Hygge S. Information about the model's unconditioned stimulus and response in vicarious classical conditioning. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 33 (1976) 764-771
44. Hygge S., and Öhman A. Modeling processes in the acquisition of fears: Vicarious electrodermal conditioning to fear-relevant stimuli. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 36 (1978) 271-279
45. de Jongh A., Muris P., Ter Horst G., and Duyx M.P.M.A. Acquisition and maintenance of dental anxiety: The role of conditioning experiences and cognitive factors. Behaviour Research and Therapy 33 (1995) 205-210
46. Joslin J., Fletcher H., and Emlen J. A comparison of the responses to snakes of lab- and wild-reared rhesus monkeys. Animal Behavior 12 (1964) 348-352
47. Kessler R.C., McGonagle K.A., Zhao S., Nelson C.B., Hughes M., Eshleman S., et al. Lifetime and 12-month prevalence of DSM-III-R psychiatric disorders in the United States: Results from the National Comorbidity Study. Archive of General Psychiatry 51 (1994) 8-19
48. King N.J., Clowes-Hollins V., and Ollendick T.H. The etiology of childhood dog phobia. Behaviour Research and Therapy 35 (1997) 77
49. Kheriaty E., Kleinknecht R.A., and Hyman Jr. I.E. Recall and validation of Phobia Origins as a function of a structured interview versus the Phobia Origins Questionnaire. Behavior Modification 23 (1999) 61-78
50. Kirkby K.C., Menzies R.G., Daniels B.A., and Smith K.L. Aetiology of spider phobia: Classificatory differences between two origins instruments. Behaviour Research and Therapy 33 (1995) 955-958
51. Kleinknecht R.A. Acquisition of blood, injury, and needle fears and phobias. Behaviour Research and Therapy 32 (1994) 817-823
52. Kleinknecht R.A. Comments on: non-associative fear acquisition: A review of the evidence from retrospective and longitudinal research. Behaviour Research and Therapy 40 (2002) 159-163
53. Kohn B. Observational and discrimination learning in the rat: Effects of stimulus substitution. Learning & Motivation 7 (1976) 303-312
54. Kravetz D.F. Heart rate as a minimal cue for the occurrence of vicarious classical conditioning. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 29 (1974) 125-131
55. Lang P.J. Fear reduction and fear behavior: Problems in treating a construct. In: Schlien J.M. (Ed). Research in psychotherapy Vol. 3 (1968), American Psychological Association, Washington, DC 90-103
56. Lindsay S.J.E., and Powell G.E. The handbook of clinical adult psychology. (second edition) (1994), Routledge, London
57. Lubow R.E. Latent inhibition and conditioned attention theory (1989), CUP, Cambridge
58. Mason J.R., and Reidinger R.F. Observational learning of food aversions in red-winged blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus). The Auk 9 (1982) 548-554
59. McNally R.J., and Steketee G.S. The etiology and maintenance of severe animal phobias. Behaviour Research and Therapy 23 (1985) 431-435
60. Menzies R.G. The origins of specific phobias in a mixed clinical sample: Classificatory differences between two origins instruments. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 10 (1996) 347-354
61. Menzies R.G., and Clarke J.C. The etiology of fear of heights and its relationship to severity and individual response patterns. Behaviour Research and Therapy 31 (1993) 355-365
62. Menzies R.G., and Clarke J.C. The etiology of childhood water phobia. Behaviour Research and Therapy 31 (1993) 499-501
63. Menzies R.G., and Clarke J.C. Retrospective studies of the origins of phobias: A review. Anxiety, Stress and Coping 7 (1994) 305-318
64. Menzies R.G., and Clarke J.C. The etiology of acrophobia and its relationship to severity and individual response patterns. Behaviour Research and Therapy 33 (1995) 795-803
65. Menzies R.G., and Clarke J.C. The etiology of phobias: A non-associative account. Clinical Psychology Review 15 (1995) 23-48
66. Menzies R.G., Kirkby K., and Harris L.M. The convergent validity of the Phobia Origins Questionnaire: A review of the evidence. Behaviour Research and Therapy 36 (1998) 1081-1089
67. Merckelbach H., Arntz A., Arrindell W.A., and De Jong P.J. Pathways to spider phobia. Behaviour Research and Therapy 30 (1992) 543-546
68. Merckelbach H., Muris P., and Schouten E. Pathways to fear in spider phobic children. Behaviour Research and Therapy 34 (1996) 935-938
69. Merckelbach H., de Ruiter C., van den Hout M.A., and Hoekstra R. Conditioning experiences and phobias. Behaviour Research and Therapy 27 (1989) 657-662
70. Mineka S., and Cook M. Immunization against the observational conditioning of snake fear in rhesus monkeys. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 95 (1986) 307-318
71. Mineka S., and Cook M. Mechanisms involved in the observational conditioning of fear. Journal of Experimental Psychology 122 (1993) 23-38
72. Mineka S., Davidson M., Cook M., and Keir R. Observational conditioning of snake fear in rhesus monkeys. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 93 (1984) 355-372
73. Mineka S., Keir R., and Price V. Fear of snakes in wild- and lab-reared rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta). Animal Learning and Behavior 8 (1980) 653-663
74. Mineka S., and Öhman A. Born to fear: Non-associative vs. associative factors in the etiology of phobias. Behaviour Research and Therapy 40 (2002) 173-184
75. Mineka S., and Zinbarg R. Conditioning and ethological models of anxiety disorders: Stress-in-dynamic-context anxiety models. In: Hope D. (Ed). Perspectives on anxiety, panic, and fear (43rd Annual Nebraska Symposium on Motivation) (1996), Lincoln, University of Nebraska Press
76. Mineka S., and Zinbarg R. A contemporary learning theory perspective on the etiology of anxiety disorders: It's not what you thought it was. American Psychologist 61 (2006) 10-26
77. Mumme D.L., Fernald A., and Herrera C. Infant's responses to facial and vocal emotional signals in a social referencing paradigm. Child Development 67 (1996) 3219-3237
78. Muris P. Normal and abnormal fear and anxiety in children: What was really wrong with Little Hans? (2007), Elsevier Science, Oxford
79. Muris P., and Merckelbach H. The etiology of childhood specific phobias: A multifactorial model. In: Vasey M.W., and Dadds M. (Eds). The developmental psychopathology of anxiety (2001), Oxford University Press, New York
80. Muris P., Merckelbach H., and Collaris R. Common childhood fears and their origins. Behaviour Research and Therapy 35 (1997) 929-937
81. Muris P., Steerneman P., Merckelbach H., and Meesters C. Parental modeling and fearfulness in middle childhood. Behaviour Research and Therapy 34 (1996) 265-268
82. Murray E.J., and Foote F. The origins of fear of snakes. Behaviour Research and Therapy 12 (1979) 489-493
83. Murray L., Cooper P., Creswell C., Schofield E., and Sack C. The effects of maternal social phobia on mother-infant interactions and infant social responsiveness. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 48 1 (2007) 45-52
84. Öhman A., and Mineka S. Fears, phobias, and preparedness: Toward an evolved module of fear and fear learning. Psychological Review 108 (2001) 483-522
85. Ollendick T.H., and King N.J. Origins of childhood fears: An evaluation of Rachman's theory of fear acquisition. Behaviour Research and Therapy 29 (1991) 117-123
86. Olsson A., and Phelps E.A. Learned fear of "unseen" faces after Pavlovian, observational, and instructed fear. Psychological Science 15 (2004) 822-828
87. Olsson A., and Phelps E.A. Social learning of fear. Nature Neuroscience 10 (2007) 1095-1102
88. Öst L.G. Ways of acquiring phobias and uutcome of behavioral treatments. Behaviour Research and Therapy 23 (1985) 683-689
89. Öst L.G. Age of onset in different phobias. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 96 (1987) 223-229
90. Öst L.G. Acquisition of blood and injection phobia and anxiety response patterns in clinical patients. Behaviour Research and Therapy 29 (1991) 323-332
91. Öst L.G., and Hugdahl K. Acquisition of phobias and anxiety response patterns in clinical patients. Behaviour Research and Therapy 19 (1981) 439-447
92. Öst L.G., and Hugdahl K. Acquisition of blood and dental phobia and anxiety response patterns in clinical patients. Behaviour Research and Therapy 23 (1985) 27-34
93. Öst L.G., and Treffers P.A. Onset, course, and outcome for anxiety disorders in children. In: Silverman W.K., and Treffers P.A. (Eds). Anxiety disorders in children and adolescents: Research, assessment and intervention (2001), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
94. Pillemer D.B. What is remembered about early childhood events?. Clinical Psychology Review 18 (1998) 895-913
95. Poulton R., and Menzies R.G. Non-associative fear acquisition: A review of the evidence from retrospective and longitudinal research. Behaviour Research and Therapy 40 (2002) 127-149
96. Rachman S. Phobias: Their nature and control (1968), Thomas Books, Springfield
97. Rachman S. The conditioning theory of fear-acquisition: A critical examination. Behaviour Research and Therapy 15 (1977) 375-387
98. Rescorla R.A. Effect of inflation of the unconditioned stimulus value following conditioning. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology 86 (1974) 101-106
99. Rescorla R.A. Pavlovian second-order conditioning: Studies in associative learning (1980), Lawrence Erlbaum, Hillsdale
100. Rescorla R.A. Pavlovian conditioning: It's not what you think it is. American Psychologist 43 (1988) 151-160
101. Rimm D.C., Janda L.H., Lancaster D.W., Nahl M., and Dittmar K. An exploratory investigation of the origin and maintenance of phobias. Behaviour Research and Therapy 15 (1977) 231-238
102. Seligman M.E.P. Phobias and preparedness. Behavior Therapy 2 (1971) 307-320
103. Siddle D.A.T., Remington B., and Churchill M. Effects of conditioned stimulus pre-exposure on human electrodermal conditioning. Biological Psychology 20 (1985) 113-127
104. Sorce J.F., Emde R.N., Campos J., and Klinnert M.D. Maternal emotional signaling: Its effects on the visual cliff behavior of 1-year olds. Developmental Psychology 21 (1985) 195-200
105. Taylor J.E., Deane F.P., and Podd J.V. Stability of driving fear acquisition pathways over one year. Behaviour Research and Therapy 37 (1999) 927-939
106. Vaughan K.B., and Lanzetta J.T. Vicarious instigation and conditioning of facial expressive and autonomic responses to a model's expressive display of pain. Journal of Personality of Social Psychology 38 (1980) 909-923
107. White K., and Davey G.C.L. Sensory preconditioniong and UCS inflation in human fear conditioning. Behaviour Research and Therapy 27 (1989) 161-166
108. Withers R.D., and Deane F.P. Origins of common fears: Effects on severity, anxiety responses and memories of onset. Behaviour Research and Therapy 33 (1995) 903-915