The evolution of arctic marine mammals

Ecological Applications

Volumn 18, Issue SUPPL.2, 2008, Pages

  Harington, C R ^a  

^a CANADIAN MUSEUM OF NATURE   (Canada)

Author keywords

Arctic; Holocene; Marine mammal; Pleistocene; Polar bear; Quaternary; Seal; Tertiary; Walrus; Whale

Indexed keywords

ARCTIC ENVIRONMENT; BEAR; EVOLUTION; FOSSIL; HOLOCENE; INTERGLACIAL; LAST GLACIAL MAXIMUM; LATE GLACIAL; PINNIPED; PLEISTOCENE; WEICHSELIAN; WHALE;

ANIMAL; ARCTIC; BIOLOGY; CLASSIFICATION; EVOLUTION; GENETICS; MAMMAL; REVIEW;

ANIMALS; ARCTIC REGIONS; EVOLUTION; MAMMALS; MARINE BIOLOGY;

ALASKA; ALEXANDER ARCHIPELAGO; ARCTIC; ATLANTIC OCEAN; BAFFIN ISLAND; CANADA; CANADIAN ARCTIC; CAPE DECEIT; CHAMPLAIN SEA; DEVON ISLAND; ELLESMERE ISLAND; ENGLAND; EURASIA; EUROPE; GREENLAND; LAKE TESHEKPUK; LONDON [ENGLAND]; NORFOLK [ENGLAND]; NORTH AMERICA; NORTH SEA; NUNAVUT; PRINCE OF WALES ISLAND [ALEXANDER ARCHIPELAGO]; QUEEN ELIZABETH ISLANDS; SEWARD PENINSULA; SVALBARD; SVALBARD AND JAN MAYEN; THULE; UNITED KINGDOM; UNITED STATES; WESTERN EUROPE;

BALAENA MYSTICETUS; BALAENIDAE; CETACEA; DELPHINAPTERUS LEUCAS; ERIGNATHUS; ERIGNATHUS BARBATUS; MAMMALIA; MONODON; ODOBENIDAE; ODOBENUS ROSMARUS; ODOBENUS ROSMARUS ROSMARUS; PHOCA; PHOCA GROENLANDICA; PHOCA HISPIDA; PINNIPEDIA; URSUS ARCTOS; URSUS MARITIMUS;

EID: 50049084329     PISSN: 10510761     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1890/06-0624.1     Document Type: Review

References (115)

1. Aaris-Sørensen, K., and K. S. Petersen. 1984. A Late Weichselian find of polar bear (Ursus maritimus Phipps) from Denmark and reflections on the paleoenvironment. Boreas 13:29-33.
2. Árnason, U., K. Bodin, A. Gullberg, C. Ledje, and S. Mouchaty. 1995. A molecular view of pinniped relationships with particular emphasis on the true seals. Journal of Molecular Evolution 40:78-85.
3. Árnason, U., and A. Gullberg. 1996. Cytochrome b nucleotide sequences and the identification of five primary lineages of extinct cetaceans. Molecular Biology and Evolution 13:407-417.
4. Árnason, U., A. Gullberg, A. Janke, M. Kullberg, N. Lehman, E. A. Petrov, and R. Väinölä. 2006. Pinniped phylogeny and a new hypothesis for their origin and dispersal. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 41:345-354.
5. Bahn, P. G., and J. Vertut. 1988. Images of the ice age. Windward, London, UK.
6. Barnes, L. G. 1976. Outline of eastern North Pacific cetacean assemblages. Systematic Zoology 25:321-343.
7. Berta, A., and J. L. Sumich. 1999. Marine mammals: evolutionary biology. Academic Press, San Diego, California, USA.
8. Berta, A., J. L. Sumich, and K. M. Kovacs. 2006. Marine mammals: evolutionary biology. Second edition. Academic Press, San Diego, California, USA.
9. Berta, A., and A. R. Wyss. 1994. Pinniped phylogeny. Proceedings of the San Diego Society of Natural History 29:33-56.
10. Bininda-Emonds, O. R. P., and A. P. Russell. 1996. A morphological perspective on the phylogenetic relationships of the extant phocid seals (Mammalia: Carnivora: Phocidae) Bonner. Zoologische Monographien 41:1-256.
11. Bisconti, M. 2003. Evolutionary history of Balaenidae. Cranium 20(1):9-50.
12. Blystad, P., H. Thomsen, A. Simonsen, and R. W. Lie. 1983. Find of a nearly complete Late Weichselian polar bear skeleton, Ursus maritimus Phipps, at Finnøy, southwestern Norway: a preliminary report. Norsk Geologisk Tidsskrift 63:193-197.
13. Bonner, N. 1989. Whales of the world. Facts on File, Oxford, UK.
14. Born, E. W., L. W. Andersen, I. Gjertz, and Ø. Wiig. 2001. A review of the genetic relationships of Atlantic walrus (Odobenus rosmarus rosmarus) east and west of Greenland. Polar Biology 24:713-718.
15. Brodie, P. F. 1989. The white whale Delphinapterus leucas (Pallas, 1776). Pages 119-144 in S. H. Ridgway and R. J. Harrison, editors. Handbook of marine mammals. Volume 4. Academic Press, London, UK.
16. Burns, J. J. 1981. Bearded seal Erignathus barbatus Erxleben, 1777. Pages 145-170 in S. H. Ridgway and R. J. Harrison, editors. Handbook of marine mammals. Volume 1. Academic Press, London, UK.
17. Burns, J. J., and F. H. Fay. 1970. Comparative morphology of the skull of the ribbon seal, Histriophoca fasciata, with remarks on systematics of Phocidae. Journal of Zoology, London 161:363-394.
18. Cronin, M. A., S. Hills, E. W. Born, and J. C. Patton. 1994. Mitochondrial DNA variations in Atlantic and Pacific walruses. Canadian Journal of Zoology 72:1035-1043.
19. Cronin, T. M. 1977. Champlain Sea Foraminifera and Ostracoda: a systematic and paleoecological synthesis. Géographie physique et Quaternaire 31:107-122.
20. Davies, J. L. 1958. Pleistocene geography and the distribution of the northern pinnipeds. Ecology 39:97-113.
21. Davis, C. S., I. Delisle, I. Stirling, D. B. Siniff, and C. Strobeck. 2004. A phylogeny of the extant Phocidae inferred from complete mitochondrial DNA coding regions. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 33:363-377.
22. Deméré, T. A. 1994a. Phylogenetic systematics of the Family Odobenidae (Mammalia: Carnivora) with description of two new species from the Pliocene of California and a review of marine mammal paleofaunas of the world. Dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles, California, USA.
23. Deméré, T. A. 1994b. Two new species of fossil walruses (Pinnipedia: Odobenidae) from the Upper Pliocene San Diego Formation, California. Proceedings of the San Diego Society of Natural History 29:77-98.
24. Deméré, T. A., A. Berta, and P. J. Adam. 2003. Pinnipedomorph evolutionary biogeography. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 279:32-76.
25. de Muizon, C. 1988. Les vértebrés fossiles de la Formation Pisco (Pérou). Part 3. Recherche sur les grandes civilisations. Memoir No. 78. Institut Français de Études Ardines, Paris, France.
26. de Muizon, C. 1991. A new Ziphiidae from the Early Miocene of Washington State (USA) and phylogenetic analysis of the major groups of odontocetes. Bulletin du Musée Nationale d'Histoire Naturelle [4]12:279-326.
27. Doupé, J. P., J. H. England, M. Furze, and D. Paetkau. 2007. Most northerly observation of a grizzly bear (Ursus arctos) in Canada: photographic and DNA evidence from Melville Island, Northwest Territories. Arctic 60:271-276.
28. Dyke, A. S., J. Hooper, C. R. Harington, and J. M. Savelle. 1999. The Late Wisconsinan and Holocene record of walrus (Odobenus rosmarus) from North America: a review with new data from Arctic and Atlantic Canada. Arctic 52:160-181.
29. Dyke, A. S., J. Hooper, and J. M. Savelle. 1996. A history of sea ice in the Canadian Arctic Archipelago based on postglacial remains of the bowhead whale (Balaena mysticetus). Arctic 49:235-255.
30. Fay, F. H. 1981. Walrus, Odobenus rosmarus (Linnaeus, 1758). Pages 1-23 in S. H. Ridgway and R. J. Harrison, editors. Handbook of marine mammals. Volume 1. Academic Press, London, UK.
31. Fay, F. H. 1982. Ecology and biology of the Pacific walrus, Odobenus rosmarus divergens Illiger. U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, North American Fauna 74:1-279.
32. Feilden, H. W. 1877. The Post-tertiary beds of Grinnell Land and North Greenland. Annals and Magazine of Natural History, Fourth Series, 20(120):483-489.
33. Feilden, H. W., and C. E. De Rance. 1878. Geology of the coasts of the Arctic lands visited by the late British expedition under Captain Sir George Nares, R.N., K.C.B., F.R.S. Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London 34(135):556-567.
34. Fordyce, E., and L. G. Barnes. 1994. The evolutionary history of whales and dolphins. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 22:419-455.
35. Fordyce, E., and C. de Muizon. 2001. Evolutionary history of cetaceans: a review. Pages 169-233 in J.-M. Mazin and V. de Buffrenil, editors. Secondary adaptation of tetrapods to life in water. Verlag F. Pfeil, Munich, Germany.
36. Forman, S. L. 1990. Post-glacial relative sea level history of northwestern Spitsbergen, Svalbard. Geological Society of America Bulletin 102:1580-1590.
37. Fredén, C. 1975. Subfossil finds of Arctic whales and seals in Sweden. Sveriges Geologiska Undersökning, Serie C, 710. Avhandlingar och Uppsatser, Arsbok 69(2):1-62.
38. Fulton, T. L., and C. Strobeck. 2006. Molecular phylogeny of the Arctoidea (Carnivora): effect of missing data on supertree and supermatrix analyses of multiple gene data sets. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 41:165-181.
39. Gingerich, P. D., B. H. Smith, and E. L. Simons. 1990. Hind limbs of Eocene Basilosaurus: evidence of feet in whales. Science 249:403-406.
40. Grant, J. A. 1883. On the inferior maxilla of Phoca groenlandica, from Green's Creek, Gloucester, Russell Co., Ontario. Royal Society of Canada, Proceedings and Transactions 1:286.
41. Gray, J. E. 1825. Outline of an attempt at the disposition of the Mammalia into tribes and families with the list of the genera apparently appertaining to each tribe. Philosophical Annals 26:337-344.
42. Grebmeier, J. M., J. E. Overland, S. E. Moore, E. V. Farley, E. C. Carmack, L. W. Cooper, K. E. Frey, J. H. Helle, F. A. McLaughlin, and S. L. McNutt. 2006. A major ecosystem shift in the northern Bering Sea. Science 311:1461-1464.
43. Grigorescu, D. 1976. Paratethyan seals. Systematic Zoology 25:407-419.
44. Gromov, V. I. 1948. Paleontological and archaeological basis of the stratigraphy of continental sediments of the Quaternary in USSR. Trudy Institut Geologicheskiy Nauk, Academie Nauk SSSR 64:1-521.
45. Gromova, V. I., editor. 1961. Fundamentals of paleontology. Mammals. Nauka, Moscow, Russia.
46. Håkansson, S. 1974. University of Lund radiocarbon dates VII. Radiocarbon 16:307-330.
47. Håkansson, S. 1976. University of Lund radiocarbon dates IX. Radiocarbon 18:290-320.
48. Harington, C. R. 1977. Marine mammals in the Champlain Sea and Great Lakes. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 288:508-537.
49. Harington, C. R. 1984. Quaternary marine and land mammals and their paleoenvironmental implications-some examples from northern North America. Carnegie Museum of Natural History, Special Publication 8:511-525.
50. Harington, C. R. 1988. Marine mammals of the Champlain Sea, and the problem of whales in Michigan. Pages 225-240 in N. R. Gadd, editor. The Late Quaternary development of the Champlain Sea Basin. Geological Association of Canada Special Paper 35. Geological Association of Canada, St. John's, Newfoundland, Canada.
51. Harington, C. R. 1990. Ice age vertebrates in the Canadian Arctic Islands. Volume I. Pages 140-160 in C. R. Harington, editor. Canada's missing dimension: science and history in the Canadian Arctic Islands. Canadian Museum of Nature, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.
52. Harington, C. R. 2003a. Annotated bibliography of Quaternary vertebrates of northern North America-with radiocarbon dates. University of Toronto Press, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
53. Harington, C. R. 2003b. Quaternary vertebrates of Québec: a summary. Géographie physique et Quaternaire 57:85-94.
54. Harington, C. R., and G. Beard. 1992. The Qualicum walrus: a Late Pleistocene walrus (Odobenus rosmarus) skeleton from Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada. Annales Zoologici Fennici 28:311-319.
55. Harington, C. R., S. Lebel, M. Paiement, and A. de Vernal. In press. Félix: a Late Pleistocene white whale from Champlain Sea deposits at Saint-Félix-de-Valois, Québec. Géographie physique et Quaternaire.
56. Harington, C. R., and S. Occhietti. 1988. Inventaire systématique et paléoécologie des mammifères marins de la Mer de Champlain (fin du Wisconsinien) et de ses voies d'access. Géographie physique et Quaternaire 42:45-64.
57. Harington, C. R., and D. E. Sergeant. 1972. Pleistocene ringed seal skeleton from Champlain Sea deposits near Hull, Quebec - a reidentification. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 9:1039-1051.
58. Hasegawa, N., J. Adachi, and M. C. Milinkovitch. 1997. Novel phylogeny of whales supported by total evidence. Journal of Molecular Evolution 44(Supplement 1):S117-S120.
59. Hay, K. A., and A. W. Mansfield. 1989. Narwhal, Monodon monoceras Linnaeus, 1758. Pages 145-176 in S. H. Ridgway and R. J. Harrison, editors. Handbook of marine mammals. Volume 4. Academic Press, London, UK.
60. Hay, O. P. 1923. The Pleistocene of North America and its vertebrated animals from the states east of the Mississippi River and from the Canadian provinces east of longitude 958. Carnegie Institution of Washington Publication 322:1-499.
61. Heaton, T. H., and F. Grady. 2000. Vertebrate biogeography, climate change and an ice age coastal refugium in southeastern Alaska. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. Abstracts of Papers 20 (Supplement to Number 3):48A.
62. Heaton, T. H., and F. Grady. 2002. The biostratigraphy of On Your Knees Cave, northern Prince of Wales Island, southeast Alaska. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. Abstracts of Papers 22 (Supplement to Number 3):63A.
63. Heaton, T. H., and F. Grady. 2003. The Late Wisconsin vertebrate history of Prince of Wales Island, southeast Alaska. Pages 17-53 in B. W. Schubert, J. I. Mead, and R. W. Graham, editors. Ice age cave faunas of North America. Indiana University Press, Bloomington, Indiana, USA.
64. Heaton, T. H., S. L. Talbot, and G. F. Shields. 1996. An ice age refugium for large mammals in the Alexander Archipelago, southeastern Alaska. Quaternary Research 46:182-192.
65. Hoberg, E. P. 1995. Historical biogeography and modes of speciation across high latitude seas of the Holarctic: concepts for host-parasite coevolution among the Phocini (Phocidae) and Tetrabotheriidae (Eucestoda). Canadian Journal of Zoology 73:45-57.
66. Horikawa, H. 1995. A primitive odobenine walrus of Early Pliocene age from Japan. Island Arc 3:309-329.
67. Hoshimi, K., and S. Akagi. 1994. On fossil Odobenus rosmarus found in the bottom of the Sea of Japan off Shimane Prefecture. Monograph of the Association of Geological Collaboration of Japan 43:53-63.
68. Huntington, H. P., and S. E. Moore. 2008. Assessing the impacts of climate change on Arctic marine mammals. Ecological Applications 18(Supplement):S1-S2.
69. Hyvärinen, H. 1989. Diving in darkness: whiskers or sense organs of the ringed seal (Phoca hispida saimensis). Journal of the Zoological Society of London 218:663-678.
70. Hyvärinen, H. 1995. Structure and function of the vibrissae of the ringed seal (Phoca hispida L.). Pages 429-445 in R. A. Kastelein, J. A. Thomas, and P. E. Nachtigall, editors. Sensory systems of aquatic mammals. De Spit, Woerden, The Netherlands.
71. Kahlke, R.-D. 1999. The history of the origin, evolution and dispersal of the Late Pleistocene Mammuthus-Coelondonta faunal complex in Eurasia (large mammals). Mammoth Site of Hot Springs, SD, Rapid City, South Dakota, USA.
72. Kastelein, R. A., S. Stevens, and P. Mosterd. 1990. The tactile sensitivity of the mystacial vibrissae of a Pacific walrus (Odobenus rosmarus divergens). Part 2: Masking. Aquatic Mammals 16:78-87.
73. Kastelein, R. A., and M. A. van Gaalen. 1988. The sensitivity of the vibrissae of a Pacific walrus (Odobenus rosmarus divergens). Part 1. Aquatic Mammals 14:123-133.
74. King, J. E. 1983. Seals of the world. Second edition. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.
75. Kohno, N., L. G. Barnes, and K. Hirota. 1995. Miocene fossil pinnipeds of the genera Prototaria and Neotherium (Carnivora; Otariidae; Imagotariinae) in the North Pacific Ocean: evolution, relationships and distribution. Island Arc 3:205-308.
76. Koretsky, I. 1997. Pinniped bones from the Late Oligocene of South Carolina: the oldest known true seal (Carnivora: Phocidae). Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. Abstracts of Papers 17(Supplement to Number 3):58A.
77. Koretsky, I., and A. E. Sanders. 2002. Paleontology from the Late Oligocene Ashley and Chandler Bridge formations of South Carolina 1: Paleogene pinniped remains: the oldest known seal (Carnivora: Phocidae). Smithsonian Contributions to Palaeontology 93:179-183.
78. Kurtén, B. 1964. The evolution of the polar bear: Ursus maritimus Phipps. Acta Zoologica Fennica 108:1-30.
79. Kurtén, B., and E. Anderson. 1980. Pleistocene mammals of North America. Columbia University Press, New York, New York, USA.
80. Laidre, K. L., I. Stirling, L. F. Lowry, Ø. Wiig, M. P. Heide-Jørgensen, and S. H. Ferguson. 2008. Quantifying the sensitivity of Arctic marine mammals to climate-induced habitat change. Ecological Applications 18(Supplement): S97-S125.
81. Lambert, O., and P. Gigase. 2006. A relative of the beluga and narwhal (Odontoceti, Monodontidae) from the Early Pliocene of the North Sea. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. Abstracts of Papers 26(Supplement to Number 3):88A-89A.
82. Liljegren, R. 1975. Subfossils vertebratfynd från Skåne. University of Lund, Department of Quaternary Geology, Report 8:1-187.
83. Marquette, W. M. 1986. Bowhead whale. Pages 83-93 in D. Haley, editor. Marine mammals of Eastern North Pacific and Arctic waters. Revised second edition. Pacific Search Press, Seattle, Washington, USA.
84. Matsumoto, H. 1926. On two species of fossil pinnipedia from Zazusa and Saghalin. Scientific Reports of Tôhoku Imperial University, Sendai, Series 2 (Geology) 10(1):13-16.
85. Mauck, B., U. Eysel, and G. Dehnhardt. 2000. Selective heating of vibrissal follicles in seals (Phoca vitulina) and dolphins (Sotalia fluviatus guianensis). Journal of Experimental Biology 203:2125-2131.
86. McLeod, S. A., F. C. Whitmore, Jr., and L. G. Barnes. 1993. Evolutionary relationship and classification. Pages 45-70 in J. J. Burns, J. J. Montague, and C. J. Cowles, editors. The bowhead whale. Special Publication Number 2. Society for Marine Mammalogy, Lawrence, Kansas, USA.
87. O'Corry-Crowe, G. 2008. Climate change and the molecular ecology of Arctic marine mammals. Ecological Applications 18(Supplement):S56-S76.
88. Pitulko, V. 2003. The bear-hunters of Zhokhov Island, east Russian Arctic. Senri Ethnological Studies 63:141-152.
89. Pitulko, V., and A. K. Kasparov. 1996. Ancient Arctic hunters: material culture and survival strategy. Arctic Anthropology 33:1-36.
90. Pivorunas, A. 1979. The feeding mechanism of baleen whales. American Scientist 67:432-440.
91. Post, K. 2005. A Weichselian marine mammal assemblage from the southern North Sea. DEINSEA 11:21-27.
92. Preece, R. C., editor. 1995. Island Britain: a Quaternary perspective. Special Publication Number 96. The Geological Society of London, London, UK.
93. Ray, C. E. 1960. Trichecodoon huxleyi (Mammalia: Odobenidae) in the Pleistocene of southeastern United States. Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University 122(3):129-142.
94. Ray, C. E. 1976. Geography of phocid evolution. Systematic Zoology 25:391-406.
95. Ray, C. E., F. Reiner, D. E. Sergeant, and C. N. Quesada. 1982. Notes on past and present distribution of the bearded seal, Erignathus barbatus, around the North Atlantic Ocean. Memórias do Museu do Mar (Cascais, Portugal), Série Zoológica 2(23):1-32.
96. Ray, C. E., and A. E. Spiess. 1981. The bearded seal, Erignathus barbatus, in the Pleistocene of Maine. Journal of Mammalogy 62:423-427.
97. Reeves, R. R., and R. L. Brownell. 1982. Baleen whales. Pages 415-444 in J. A. Chapman and G. A. Feldhamer, editors. Wild mammals of North America: biology, management and economics. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, Maryland, USA.
98. Reeves, R. R., and S. Leatherwood. 1985. Bowhead whale Balaena mysticetus Linnaeus, 1758. Pages 305-344 in S. H. Ridgway and R. J. Harrison, editors. Handbook of marine mammals. Volume 3. Academic Press, New York, New York, USA.
99. Repenning, C. A. 1983. New evidence for the age of the Gubik Formation, Alaskan North Slope. Quaternary Research 19:356-372.
100. Repenning, C. A., and R. H. Tedford. 1977. Otarioid seals of the Neogene. United States Geological Survey Professional Paper 942:1-93.
101. Ronald, K., and P. J. Healey. 1981. Harp seal Phoca groenlandica Erxleben, 1777. Pages 55-87 in S. H. Ridgway and R. J. Harrison, editors. Handbook of marine mammals. Volume 2. Academic Press, London, UK.
102. Rosenbaum, H. C., et al. 2000. World-wide genetic differentiation of Eubalaena: questioning the number of right whale species. Molecular Ecology 9(11):1793-1802.
103. Salvigsen, O. 1978. Holocene emergence and finds of pumice, whalebones, and driftwood at Svartknausflya, Nordaustlandet. Norsk Polarinstitutt Årbok 1977:217-228.
104. Sterling, I. 1989. Polar bears. Fitzhenry and Whiteside, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
105. Stuart, A. J. 1982. Pleistocene vertebrates of the British Isles. Longman, London, UK.
106. Talbot, S.-L., and G. F. Shields. 1996. A phylogeny of bears (Ursidae) inferred from complete sequences of three mitochondrial genes. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 5:567-575.
107. Thewissen, J. G. M., S. I. Madar, and S. T. Hussain. 1996. Ambulocetus natans, an Eocene cetacean (Mammalia) from Pakistan. Courier Forschungsinstitut Senckenberg 191:1-86.
108. Tomilin, A. G. 1957. Mammals of the USSR and adjacent countries. Volume 9. In V. G. Heptner, editor. Cetacea. Nauk USSR, Moscow, Russia.
109. Uhen, M. D. 1998. Middle to Late Eocene basilosaurines and dorudontines. Pages 29-61 in J. G. M. Thewissen, editor. The emergence of whales: patterns in the origin of Cetacea. Plenum Press, New York, New York, USA.
110. Uhen, M. D. 2004. Form, function and anatomy of Dorudon atrox (Mammalia, Cetacea): an archaeocete from the Middle to Late Eocene of Egypt. University of Michigan Papers in Paleontology 34:1-222.
111. Vereshchagin, N. K. 1969. The origin and evolution of the polar bear. Pages 25-53 in A. G. Bannikov, A. A. Kishchinskii, and S. M. Uspenskii, editors. The polar bear and its conservation in the Soviet Arctic. Hydrometeorological Publishing House, Leningrad, Russia.
112. Voronov, V. G., and G. A. Voronov. 1981. Restoration of geographic range and finds of walruses (Odobenus rosmarus) in the Sea of Okhotsk. Zoologicheskiy Zhurnal 60:1117-1119.
113. West, R. G. 1980. The pre-glacial Pleistocene of the Norfolk and Suffolk coasts. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
114. Wyss, A. R. 1988. On "retrogression" in the evolution of the Phocinae and phylogenetic affinities of the monk seals. American Museum Novitates 2924:1-38.
115. Yu, L., Q. W. Li, D. A. Ryder, and Y. P. Zhang. 2004. Phylogeny of the bears (Ursidae) based on nuclear and mitochondrial genes. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 32(2):480-494.