Ambulocetus natans, an Eocene cetacean (Mammalia) from Pakistan

CFS Courier Forschungsinstitut Senckenberg

Volumn , Issue 191, 1996, Pages 1-86

  Thewissen, J G M ^a,b   Madar, S I ^a,b   Hussain, S T ^c  

^a NORTHEAST OHIO MEDICAL UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b HIRAM COLLEGE   (United States)

^c HOWARD UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

Cetacea; Eocene; Fossil whales; Mammalia

Indexed keywords

ALLIGATOR; ANIMALIA; CETACEA; CROCODYLIDAE (ALL CROCODILES); MAMMALIA; PARALICHTHYS DENTATUS; TREMATODA;

EID: 0004658194     PISSN: 03414116     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (192)

1. AHLBERG, P.E. & MILNER, A.R. (1994): The origin and early diversification of tetrapods.- Nature, 368: 507-514; London.
2. ALESHIRE, D.P. (1993): Functional morphology and locomotion in an early Eocene protocetid whale from Georgia.- J. Vert. Paleont., 13: 24A ; Chicago, I11. (abstr.).
3. ANDREWS, C.W. (1906): A descriptive catalogue of the Tertiary Vertebrata of the Fayum, Egypt.- London (British Museum, Natural History).
4. ASLAN, A., & THEWISSEN, J.G.M. (in press): Preliminary evaluation of Kuldana paleosols and implications for the interpretation of vertebrate fossil assemblages, Kuldana Formation, Northern Pakistan.- Palaeo-vertebrata (accepted December 1994); Montpellier.
5. BACKHOUSE, K.M. (1961): Locomotion in seals with particular reference to the forelimb.- Symp. Zool. Soc. London, 5: 59-75; London.
6. BAJPAI, S. (1990): Geology and palaeontology of some late Cretaceous and middle Eocene sequences of Kachchh, Gujarat, western India.- Ph.D. thesis, Panjab University, Chandigarh, India; Chandigarh (unpubl.).
7. BAJPAI, S., SRIVASTAVA, S. & JOLLY, A. (1989): Sirenian-moerithere dichotomy: some evidence from the middle Eocene of Kachchh, western India.- Curr. Sci., 58: 304-306; Bangalore.
8. BAJPAI, S., THEWISSEN, J.G.M. & SAHNI, A (in press): Remingtonocetid (Cetacea, Mammalia) endocasts from Kachchn (India).- J. Vert. Paleont.; Chicago, Ill.
9. BARNES, L.G. (1984): Whales, dolphins, and porpoises.-in: GINGERICH, P.D. & BADGLEY, C.E. (eds.): Mammals, Notes for a Short Course.- Univ. of Tennessee, Dept. of Geol., Stud, in Geol., 8: 139-154; Knoxville, Tenn.
10. BARNES, L.G., DOMNING, D.P. & RAY, C.E. (1985): Status of studies on fossil marine mammals.- Marine Mamm. Sci., 1: 15-53; Lawrence, Kans.
11. BARNES, L.G. & MITCHELL, E.D. (1978): Cetacea.- in: MAGLIO, V.J. & COOKE, H.B.S. (eds.): Evolution of African Mammals: 582-602; Cambridge, Mass. (Harvard Univ. Press).
12. BEENTJES, M.P. (1990): Comparative terrestrial locomotion of the hooker's sea lion (Phocarctos hookeri) and the New Zealand fur seal (Arctocephalus forsteri): evolutionary and ecological implications.-Zool. J. Linnean Soc., 98: 307-325; London.
13. BOENNINGHAUS, G. (1904): Das Ohr des Zahnwales, zugleich ein Beitrag zur Theorie des Schalleitung.-Zool. Jb., 19: 189-360; Jena.
14. BRILL, R.L., SEVENICH, M.L., SULLIVAN, T.J., SUSTMAN, J.D. & WITT, E. (1988): Behavioral evidence for hearing through the lower jaw by an echolocating dolphin (Tursiops truncatus).- Marine Mamm. Sci., 4: 223-230; Lawrence, Kans.
15. BRUIJN, H. de, Hussain, S.T. & Leinders, J.J.M. (1982): On some early Eocene rodent remains from Barbara Banda, Kohat, Pakistan, and the early history of the order Rodentia.- Proc. Konink. Nederl. Akad. Wetensch., Ser. B, 85: 249-258; Amsterdam.
16. BUFFRENIL, V. de, RICQLES, A. de, RAY, C.E. & DOMNING, D.P. (1990): Bone histology of the ribs of the archaeocetes.- J. Vert. Paleont., 10: 455-466; Chicago, I11.
17. BULLOCK, T.H., GRINNELL, A.D., IKEZONO, E., KAMEDA, K., KATSUKI, Y., NOMOTO, M., SATO, O., SUGA, N. & YANAGISAWA, K. (1968): Electrophysiological studies of central auditory mechanisms in cetaceans.- Z. vergl. Physiol., 59: 117-156; Berlin.
18. CROVETTO, A. (1991): Etude osteometrique et anatomofunctionelle de la colonne vertebrale chez les grands cétacés-Invest. Cetacea , 23: 7-189; Bern.
19. DART, R.E. (1923): The brain of the Zeuglodontidae (Cetacea).- Pr. Zool. Soc. London, 1923: 615-654; London.
20. DEHM, R. & OETTINGEN-SPIELBERG, T. zu (1958): Palaeontologische und geologische Untersuchungen im Tertiaer von Pakistan. 2. Die mitteleocaenen Sauegetiere von Ganda Käs bei Basal in Nordwest Pakistan.- Bayer. Akad. Wissensch., Math. Naturw. Kl., Abb., N. F., 91: 1-54; München.
21. DENNY, M.W. (1993): Air and Water, the Biology and Physics of Life's Media.- i-xix, 1-341; Princeton, N. J. (Princeton Univ. Press).
22. DOMNING, D.P. & BUFFRENIL, D. de (1991): Hydrostasis in the Sirenia: Quantitative data and functional interpretations.- Mar. Mamm. Sci., 7: 331-368; Lawrence, Kans.
23. DOMNING, D.P., RAY, C.E. & MCKENNA, M.C. (1986): Two new Oligocene desmostylians and a discussion of tethytherian systematics.- Smiths. Contr. Paleobiol., 59: 1-56; Washington, D. C.
24. EALES, N.B. (1950): The skull of the foetal narwhal, Monodon monoceros L.- Proc. Roy. Soc., Ser. B, 235: 1-33; London.
25. EDINGER, T. (1955): Hearing and smell in cetacean history.- Monatsschr. Psychiat. Neurol., 129: 37-58; Berlin.
26. ENGLISH, A.W. (1976a): Limb movements and locomotor function in the California sea lion (Zalophus californiamus).- J. Zool., 178: 341-364; London.
27. ENGLISH, A.W. (1976b): Structural correlates of forelimb function in fur seals and sea lions.- J. Morph., 151: 325-352; New York, N. Y.
28. ERICKSON, G.M. (1995): Split carinae on tyrannosaurid teeth and implications of their development.- J. Vert. Paleont., 15: 268-274; Chicago, I11.
29. FELDKAMP, S.D. (1987): Foreflipper propulsion in the California sea lion, Zalophus californianus.- J. Zool., 212: 43-57; London.
30. FISH, F.E. (1982): Aerobic energetics of surface swimming in the muskrat Ondatra zibethicus.- Physiol. zool., 55: 180-189; Chicago, I11.
31. FISH, F.E. (1984): Kinematics of undulatory swimming in the American alligator.- Copeia, 1984: 839-843; Austin, Tex.
32. FISH, F.E. (1992): Aquatic locomotion.- in: TOMASI, T.E. & HORTON, T.H. (eds.): Mammalian energetics: interdisciplinary views of metabolism and reproduction: 34-63; Ithaca, N. Y. (Cornell Univ. Press).
33. FISH, F.E. (1993a): Comparison of swimming kinematics between terrestrial and semiaquatic opossums.- J. Mammal., 74: 275-284; Provo, Ut.
34. FISH, F.E. (1993b): Influence of hydrodynamic design and propulsive mode on mammalian swimming energetics.- Australian J. Zool., 42: 79-101; Melbourne.
35. FISH, F.E. (1994): Association of propulsive mode with behavior by swimming river otters (Lutra canadensis).- J. Mammal., 75: 989-997; Provo, Ut.
36. FISH, F.E. & HUI, C.A. (1991): Dolphin swimming - a review.- Mammal Rev., 21: 181-195; Oxford.
37. FISH, F.E. & STEIN, B.R. (1991): Functional correlates of differences in bone density among terrestrial and aquatic genera in the family Mustelidae (Mammalia).-Zoomorph., 110: 339-345; Berlin.
38. FLEISCHER, G. (1973). Structural analysis of the tympanic complex in the bottle-nosed dolphin (Tursiops truncatus).- J. Audit. Res., 13: 178-190; Groton, Conn.
39. FLEISCHER, G. (1976): Hearing in extinct cetaceans as determined by cochlear structure.- J. Paleont., 50: 133-152; Lawrence, Kans.
40. FLEISCHER, G. (1978): Evolutionary principles of the mammalian middle ear.- Adv. Anat., Embr., and Cell Biol., 55: 1-70; New York, N. Y.
41. FLYGER, V. & TOWNSEND, M.R. (1968): The migration of polar bears.- Sci. Amer., 218: 108-116; New York, N. Y.
42. FORDYCE, R.E. (1980): Whale evolution and Oligocene southern ocean environments.- Palaeogeog., Palaeoclim., Palaeoecol., 31: 319-336; Amsterdam.
43. FORDYCE, R.E. (1992): Cetacean evolution and Eocene/ Oligocene environments.- in: PROTHERO, D.R. & BERGGREN, W.A. (eds.): Eocene-Oligocene climatic and biotic evolution: 368-381; Princeton, N.J. (Princeton Univ. Press).
44. FORDYCE, R.E. & BARNES, L.G. (1994): The evolutionary history of whales and dolphins.- Ann. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci., 22: 419-455; Palo Alto, Ca.
45. FORTELIUS, M. (1990): Problems with using fossil teeth to estimate body sizes of extinct mammals.- in: DAMUTH, J. & MACFADDEN, B.J. (eds.): Body size in mammalian paleobiology, Estimation and biological implications: 207-228; Cambridge (Cambridge Univ. Press).
46. FRAAS, E. (1904): Neue Zeuglodonten aus dem unteren Mitteleocaen vom Mokattam bei Cairo.- Geol. Pal. Abh., N. F., 6: 199-220; Jena.
47. FRANZEN, J.L. (1981): Das erste Skelett eines Dichobuniden (Mammalia, Artiodactyla), geborgen aus mitteleozaenen Oelschiefem der "Grube Messel" bei Darmstadt (Deutschland, S-Hessen).- Senckenb. lethaea, 61: 299-353; Frankfurt/M.
48. FRASER, F.C. & PURVES, P.E. (1960): Anatomy and function of the cetacean ear.- Proc. Roy. Soc., 152: 62-78; London.
49. FREY, E. (1982): Ecology, locomotion and tail muscle anatomy of crocodiles.- N. Jb. Geol. Palaeont., Abh. 164: 194-199; Stuttgart.
50. GINGERICH, P.D. (1977): A small collection of fossil vertebrates from the middle Eocene Kuldana and Kohat Formations of Punjab (Pakistan).- Contr. Mus. Paleont., Univ. Michigan, 24: 190-203; Ann Arbor, Mich.
51. GINGERICH, P.D. (1990): Prediction of body mass in mammalian species from long bone lengths and diameters.- Contr. Mus. Paleont., Univ. Michigan, 28: 79-92; Ann Arbor, Mich.
52. GINGERICH, P.D. (1991): Partial skeleton of a new archaeocete from the earliest middle Eocene Habib Rahi Limestone, Pakistan.- J. Vert. Paleont., 11: 31A; Chicago, Ill. (abstr.).
53. GINGERICH, P.D. (1992): Marine mammals (Cetacea and Sirenia) from the Eocene of Gebel Mokattam and Fayum, Egypt: Stratigraphy, age, and paleo-environments.- Univ. Michigan, Pap. Paleont., 30: 1-84; Ann Arbor, Mich.
54. GINGERICH, P.D. (1992): Marine mammals (Cetacea and Sirenia) from the middle Eocene of Kpogame-Hahotoe in Togo.- J. Vert. Paleont., 12: 29A; Chicago, Ill. (abstr.).
55. GINGERICH, P.D., ARIF, M. & CLYDE, W.C. (1995): New Archaeocete whales from the early middle Eocene Domanda Formation of Pakistan.- J. Vert. Paleont., 15: 32A; Chicago, Ill (abstr.).
56. GINGERICH, P.D., RAZA, S.M., ARIF, M., ANWAR, M. & ZHOU, X. (1993): Partial skeletons of Indocetus ramani (Mammalia, Cetacea) from the lower middle Eocene Domanda Shale in the Sulaiman Range of Punjab (Pakistan).- Contr. Mus. Paleont., Univ. Michigan, 28: 393-416; Ann Arbor, Mich.
57. GINGERICH, P.D., RAZA, S.M., ARIF, M., ANWAR, M. & ZHOU, X. (1994): New whale from the Eocene of Pakistan and the origin of cetacean swimming.- Nature, 368: 844-847; London.
58. GINGERICH, P.D. & RUSSELL, D.E. (1981): Pakicetus inachus, a new archaeocete (Mammalia, Cetacea) from the early-middle Eocene Kuldana Formation of Kohat (Pakistan).- Contr. Mus. Paleont., Univ. Michigan, 25: 235-246; Ann Arbor, Mich.
59. GINGERICH, P.D. & RUSSELL, D.E. (1990): Dentition of early Eocene Pakicetus (Mammalia, Cetacea).-Contr. Mus. Paleont., Univ. Michigan, 28: 1-20; Ann Arbor, Mich.
60. GINGERICH, P.D. & RUSSELL, D.E.(1994): Unusual mammalian limb bones (Cetacea?, Archaeoceti?) from the early-to-middle Eocene Subathu Formation of Kashmir (Pakistan).- Contr. Mus. Paleont., Univ. Michigan, 29: 109-117; Ann Arbor, Mich.
61. GINGERICH, P.D. & SMITH, B.H. (1990): Forelimb and hand of Basilosaurus isis (Mammalia, Cetacea) from the middle Eocene of Egypt.- J. Vert. Paleont., 10: 24A; Chicago, Ill. (abstr.).
62. GINGERICH, P.D., SMITH, B.H. & SIMONS, E.L (1990): Hindlimbs of Eocene Basilosaurus: evidence of feet in whales.- Science, 249: 154-157; Washington, D.C.
63. GINGERICH, P.D., WELLS, N.A., RUSSELL, D.E. & SHAH, S.M.I. (1983): Origin of whales in epicontinental remnant seas: new evidence from the early Eocene of Pakistan.- Science, 220: 403-406; Washington, D.C.
64. GOULD, S.J. (1994): Hooking Leviathan by its past.-Nat. Hist, 5: 8-15; New York, N.Y. (Am. Mus. Nat. Hist.)
65. HALSTEAD, L.B. & MIDDLETON, J.A. (1974): New material of the archaeocete whale, Pappocetus lugardi Andrews, from the middle Eocene of Nigeria.- J. Mining Geol., 8: 81-85.
66. HIIEMAE, K.M. & CROMPTON, A.W. (1985): Mastication, food transport, and swallowing.- in: HILDEBRAND, M., BRAMBLE, D.M., LIEM, K.F. & WAKE, D.B. (eds.): Functional Vertebrate Morphology: 262-290; Cambridge, Mass. (Belknap Press, Harvard Univ. Press).
67. HOWELL, A.B. (1930): Aquatic mammals, their adaptations to life in the water.- i-xii, 1-338; Springfield, Ill. (C.C. Thomas Publ.).
68. HOWELL, A.B. (1965): Speed in animals, their adaptations for running and leaping.- 1-240; New York, N. Y. (Hafner Publ. Comp.).
69. HULBERT, R.C., Jr. (1993): Craniodental anatomy and systematics of a middle Eocene protocetid whale from Georgia.- J. Vert. Paleont., 13: 42A; Chicago, Ill. (abstr.).
70. HULBERT, R.C., Jr. (1994): Phylogenetic analysis of Eocene whales ("Archaeoceti") with a diagnosis of a new Norh American protocetid genus.- J. Vert. Paleont., 14: 30A; Chicago, Ill. (abstr.).
71. HULBERT, R.C. Jr. & PETKEWICH, R.M. (1991): Innominate of a middle Eocene (Lutetian) protocetid whale from Georgia.- J. Vert. Paleont., 11: 36A; Chicago, Ill. (abstr.).
72. HUSSAIN, ST., BRUIJN, H. de & LEINDERS, J.J.M. (1978): Middle Eocene rodents from the Kala Chitta Range (Punjab, Pakistan).- Proc. Konink. Nederl. Akad. Wetensch., Ser. B, 81: 74-112; Amsterdam.
73. HYLANDER, W.L., JOHNSON, K.R. & CROMPTON, A.W. (1987): Loading patterns and jaw movements during mastication in Macaca fascicularis: a bone-strain, electromyographic, and cineradiographic analysis.-Am. J. Phys. Anthr., 72: 287-314.
74. JANIS, C.M. (1990): Correlation of cranial and dental variables with body size in ungulates and macropodoids.- in: DAMUTH, J. & MACFADDEN, B.J. (eds.): Body size in mammalian paleobiology, Estimation and biological implications: 255-300; Cambridge (Cambridge Univ. Press).
75. JANOVSKAJA, N.M. (1980): The brontotheres of Mongolia.-Tr. Joint Soviet-Mongolian Paleont. Exped., 12: 1-219; Moscow.
76. KASUYA, T. (1973): Systematic consideration of recent toothed whales based on the morphology of tympano-periotic bone.- Sci. Rep. Whales Res. Inst., 25: 1-103; Tokyo.
77. KAY, R.F. (1975): The functional adaptations of primate molar teeth.- Am. J. Phys. Anthr., 43: 195-216; New York, N. Y.
78. KELLOGG, R. (1928): The history of whales-Their adaptation to life in the water.- Quart, rev. biol., 3: 29-67, 174-208; Chicago, Ill.
79. KELLOGG, R., (1936): A review of the Archaeoceti.-Washington, D. C. (Carnegie Inst. of Washington).
80. KERNAN, J.D. (1918): The skull of Ziphius cavirostris.-Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., Bull., 38: 349-394; New York.
81. KETTEN, D.R. (1991): The marine mammal ear: specializations for aquatic audition and echolocation.- in: WEBSTER, D., FAY, R. & POPPER, A. (eds.): The Biology of Hearing: 717-754; New York, N. Y. (Springer).
82. KETTEN, D.R. (1992): The cetacean ear: form, frequency, and evolution.- in: THOMAS, J., KASTELEIN, R. & SUPIN, A. (eds.): Marine mammal sensory systems: 53-75; New York, N. Y. (Springer).
83. KETTEN, D.R. & WARTZOK, D. (1990): Three-dimensional reconstructions of the dolphin ear.- in: THOMAS, J. & KASTELEIN, R. (eds.): Sensory Abilities of Cetaceans: 81-105; New York, N. Y. (Plenum Press).
84. KING, J.E. (1983): Seals of the world.- 1-240; London (British Mus. Nat. Hist.).
85. KUMAR, K. (1990): Shallowing and withdrawal of Tethys: vertebrate faunal evidences from northwestern Himalaya, India.- Third Intern. Symposium on shallow Tethys: 44-45; Sendai.
86. KUMAR, K. (1991): Anthracobune ajiensis nov. sp. (Mammalia: Proboscidea) from the Subathu Formation, Eocene from NW Himalaya, India.- Geobios, 24: 221-239; Lyon.
87. KUMAR, K. (1992): Paratritemnodon indicus (Creodonta: Mammalia) from the early Middle Eocene Subathu Formation, NW Himalaya, India and the Kalakot mammalian community structure.-Paläont. Z., 66: 387-403; Stuttgart.
88. KUMAR, K. & LOYAL, R.S. (1987): Eocene ichthyofauna from the Subathu Formation, Northwestern Himalaya, India.- J. Palaeont. Soc. India, 32: 60-84; Lucknow.
89. KUMAR, K. & SAHNI, A. (1985): Eocene mammals from the Upper Subathu Group, Kashmir Himalaya, India.- J. Vert. Paleont., 5: 153-168; Chicago, Ill.
90. KUMAR, K. & SAHNI, A. (1986): Remingtonocetus harudiensis, new combination, a middle Eocene archaeocete (Mammalia, Cetacea) from western Kutch, India.- J. Vert. Paleont., 6: 326-349; Chicago, Ill.
91. LANCASTER, W.C. (1990): The middle ear of the Archaeoceti.- J. Vert. Paleont., 10: 117-127; Chicago, Ill.
92. LENHARDT, M.L. (1982): Bone conduction hearing in turtles.- J. Audit. Res., 22: 153-160; Groton, Conn.
93. LENHARDT, M.L., BELLMUND, B., BYLES, R.A., HARKINS, S.W. & MUSICK, J.A. (1983): Marine turtle reception of bone-conducted sound.- J. Audit. Res., 23: 119-125; Groton, Conn.
94. LENHARDT, M.L. & HARKINS, S.W. (1983): Turtle shell as an auditory receptor.- J. Audit. Res., 23: 251-260; Groton, Conn.
95. LINGHAM-SOLIAR, T. (1991): Locomotion in mosasaurs.-Modern Geol., 16: 229-248; London.
96. LIPPS, J.H. & MICHELL, E. (1976): Trophic model for the adaptive radiations and extinctions of pelagic marine mammals.-Paleobiol., 2: 147-155; Chicago, Ill.
97. LOYAL, R.S. (1986): Vertebrate biostratigraphy of the type area of Subathu Formation, Himachel Pradesh, India.-Tertiary Res., 7: 129-132; Leiden.
98. LUO, Z. & EASTMAN, E.R. (1995): Petrosal and inner ear of a squalodontoid whale: implications for evolution of hearing in odontocetes.- J. Vert. Paleont., 15: 431-442; Chicago, Ill.
99. MACLEOD, N. & ROSE, K.D. (1993): Inferring locomotor behavior in Paleogene mammals via eigenshape analysis.- Am. J. Sci., 293-A: 300-355; New Haven, Conn.
100. MADAR, S.I. & THEWISSEN, J.G.M. (1994): Vertebral morphology of Ambulocetus, an Eocene cetacean from the Kuldana Formation.- J. Vert. Paleont., 14: 35A; Chicago, Ill. (abstr.).
101. MANTER, J.T. (1940): The mechanics of swimming in the alligator.-J. Exp. Zool., 83: 345-843; New York, N. Y.
102. MASSARE, J.A. (1987): Tooth morphology and prey preference of Mesozoic marine reptiles.- J. Vert. Paleont., 7: 121-137; Chicago, Ill.
103. MASSARE, J.A. (1988): Swimming capabilities of Mesozoic marine reptiles: implications for method of predation.-Paleobiol., 14: 187-205; Ithaca, N. Y.
104. MASSARE, J.A. (1994): Swimming capabilities of Mesozoic marine reptiles: a review.- in: MADDOCK, L., BONE, Q., RAYNER, J.M.V (eds.): Mechanics and Physiology of Animal Swimming.- 133-150; Cambridge (Cambridge Univ. Press).
105. MATTHEW, W.D. (1915): Part I.- Order Ferae (Carnivora). Suborder Creodonta.- in: MATTHEW, W.D. & GRANGER, W. (eds.): A revision of the lower Eocene Wasatch and Wind River faunas.- Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., Bull., 24: 1-103; New York, N. Y.
106. MCCORMICK, J.G., WEVER, E.G., PALIN, J. & RIDGWAY, S.H. (1970): Sound conduction in the dolphin ear.-J. Acoust. Soc. Am., 48: 1418-1428; New York, N. Y.
107. MCCORMICK, J.G., WEVER, E.G., RIDGWAY, S.H. & PALIN, J. (1980): Sound reception in the porpoise as it relates to echolocation.- in: BUSNEL, R.-G. & FISH, J.F. (eds.): Animal Sonar Systems: 449-467; New York, N. Y. (Plenum Press).
108. MCHEDLIDZE, G.A. (1984): General features of the paleobiological evolution of Cetacea.- i-viii, 1-139; New Delhi (Amerind Publ. Co.).
109. MEISSNER, C.R, MASTER, J.M, RASHID, M.A. & HUSSAIN, M. (1974): Stratigraphy of the Kohat Quadrangle, Pakistan.- U.S. Geol. Surv., Prof. Pap., 716D: 1-30; Washington, D. C.
110. NORRIS K.S. (1968): The evolution of acoustic mechanisms in odontocete cetaceans- in: DRAKE, E.T. (ed.): Evolution and Environment.- 297-324; New Haven, Conn. (Yale Univ. Press).
111. NOVACEK, M.J. (1994): Whales leave the beach.-Nature, 368: 807; London.
112. OELSCHLAGER, H.A. (1990): Evolutionary morphology and acoustics in the dolphin skull.- in: THOMAS, J. & KASTELEIN, R. (eds.): Sensory Abilities of Cetaceans: 137-162; New York, N. Y. (Plenum Press).
113. O'LEARY, M. & ROSE, K.D. (1995): Postcranial skeleton of the early Eocene mesonychid Pachyaena.- J. Vert. Paleont., 15: 401-430; Chicago, Ill.
114. OSBORN, H.F. (1924): Andrewsarchus, giant mesonychid of Mongolia.- Am. Mus. Nov., 146: 1-5; New York, N. Y.
115. OSBORN, H.F. & EARLE, C. (1895): Fossil mammals of the Puerco Beds. Collection of 1892.- Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., Bull., 7: 1-70; New York, N. Y.
116. PABST, D.A. (1990): Axial muscles and connective tissues of the bottlenose dolphin.- in: LEATHERWOOD, S. & REEVES, R.R. (eds.): The Bottlenose Dolphin: 51-67.- New York, N. Y. (Academic Press).
117. PABST, D.A. (1993): Intramuscular morphology and tendon geometry of the epaxial swimming muscles of dolphins- J. Zool. (London), 230: 159-176; London.
118. PILGRIM, G.E. (1940): Middle Eocene mammals from north-west India.- Proc. Zool. Soc., London, Ser. B, 110:127-152; London
119. PILLERI, G., GIHR, M. & KRAUS, C. (1986): Evolution of the echolocation system in cetaceans, a contribution to paleoacoustics.- Invest. Cetacea (Berne), 18: 13-104; Bern.
120. POMPECKJ, J.F. (1922): Das Ohrskelett von Zeuglodon.-Senckenbergiana, 4: 43-100; Frankfurt/M.
121. PROTHERO, D.R., MANNING, E.M. & FISCHER, M. (1988): The phylogeny of the ungulates.- in: BENTON, M.J. (ed.): The Phylogeny and Classification of the Tetrapods, Vol. 2: Mammals.- Systematics Association Spec. Vol., 35B: 201-234; Oxford (Clarendon Press).
122. PURVES, P.E. (1966): Anatomy and physiology of the outer and middle ear in cetaceans.- in: NORRIS, K.S. (ed.): Whales, Dolphins, and Porpoises.- 320-376; Berkeley, Calif. (Univ. California Press).
123. PURVES, P.E. & PILLERI, G.E. (1983): Echolocation in whales and dolphins.- London (Academic Press).
124. RADO, R., HIMELFARB, M., ARENSBURG, B., TERKEL, J. & WOLLBERG, Z. (1989): Are seismic communication signals transmitted by bone conduction in the blind mole rat?- Hearing Res., 41: 23-30; Amsterdam.
125. RANGA RAO, A. (1972): New mammalian genera and species from the Kalakot zone of the Himalayan foot hills near Kalakot, Jammu & Kashmir State, India.-Director. Geol., Oil & Nat. Gas Commiss., Dehra Dun (India) Spec. Pap., 1: 1-22; Dehra Dun.
126. RANGA RAO, A. (1973): Notices on two new mammals from the upper Eocene Kalakot Beds, India.- Director. Geol., Oil & Nat. Gas Commiss., Dehra Dun (India), Spec. Pap. 2: 1-6; Dehra Dun.
127. REYSENBACH DE HAAN, EW. (1957): Hearing in whales.-Acta Oto-Laryngol., Suppl., 134: 1-114.
128. ROSE, K.D. (1985): Comparative osteology of North American dichobunid artiodactyls.- J. Paleont., 59: 1203-1226; Lawrence, Kans.
129. ROSE, K.D. (1990): Postcranial skeletal remains and adaptations in early Eocene mammals from the Willwood Formation, Bighorn Basin, Wyoming.- in: BOWN, T.M. & ROSE, K.D. (eds.): Dawn of the age of mammals in the northern part of the Rocky Mountain Interior, North America.- Geol. Soc. America, Spec. Pap., 243: 107-134; Boulder, Col.
130. ROSE, K.D. & O'LEARY, M.A. (1995): The manus of Pachyaena gigantea (Mammalia: Mesonychia).- J. Vert. Paleont.; Chicago, Ill.
131. ROSOWSKI, J.J. (1992): Hearing in transitional mammals: predictions from the middle-ear anatomy and hearing capabilities of extant mammals.- in: WEBSTER, D.B, FAY, R.R. & POPPER, A.N. (eds.): Evolutionary Biology of Hearing: 615-631; New York, N. Y. (Springer).
132. ROTH, V.L. (1990): Insular dwarf elephants: a case study in body mass estimation and ecological inference.-in: DAMUTH, J. & MACFADDEN, B.J. (eds.): Body size in mammalian paleobiology, Estimation and biological implications: 151-180; Cambridge (Cambridge Univ. Press).
133. RUSSELL, A.P. & THOMASON, J.J. (1993): Mechanical analysis of the mammalian head skeleton.- in: HANKEN, J. & HALL, B.K. (eds.): The Skull, Vol. 3: Functional and Evolutionary mechanisms: 345-383; Chicago, Ill. (Univ. Chicago Press).
134. RUSSELL, D.E. (1964): Les mammiferes paleocenes d'Europe-Mem. Mus. Nat. Hist. Nat., ser. C, 13: 1-324; Paris.
135. SAHNI, A. (1981 for 1980): Enamel ultrastructure of fossil Mammalia: Eocene Archaeoceti from Kutch.- J. Palaeont. Soc. India, 25: 33-37; Lucknow.
136. SAHNI, A., BATRA, R.S. & BHATIA, S.B. (1984): Vertebrate assemblage from the upper Subathu (middle Eocene) of the Bilaspur area, Himachel Pradesh, India.- Proc. X Indian Colloq. Micropalaeont. Stratigr., 357-368; Lucknow.
137. SAHNI, A. & KHARE, S.K. (1972 for 1971): Three new Eocene mammals from Rajauri District, Jammu and Kashmir.- J. Palaeont. Soc. India, 16: 41-53; Lucknow.
138. SAHNI, A & KUMAR, K. (1974): Palaeogene palaeobiogeograpy of the Indian subcontinent.-Palaeogeog., Palaeoclim., Palaeoecol., 15: 209-226; Amsterdam.
139. SAHNI, A & MISHRA, V. P. (1972): A new species of Protocetus (Cetacea) from the middle Eocene of Kutch, western India.- Palaeontol., 15: 490-495; London.
140. SAHNI, A. & MISHRA, V.P. (1975): Lower Tertiary vertebrates from western India.- Monogr. Palaeont. Soc. India, 3: 1-48; Lucknow.
141. SATSANGI, P.P & MUKHOPADHYAY, P.K. (1975): New Marine Eocene vertebrates from Kutch.- J. Geol. Soc. India, 16: 84-86; Lucknow.
142. SCHAEFFER, B. (1948): Notes on the origin and function of the artiodactyl tarsus.- Am. Mus. Nov., 1356: 1-24; New York, N. Y.
143. SCHREIBER, K. (1916): Zur Entwicklungsgeschichte des Walschaedels, das Primordialcranium eines Embryos von Globiocephalus melas (13,3 cm).- Zool. Jahrb., Abt. Anat., 39: 201-227; Jena.
144. SCOTT, K.M. (1990): Postcranial dimensions of ungulates as predictors of body mass.- in: DAMUTH, J. & MACFADDEN, B.J. (eds.): Body size in mammalian paleobiology, Estimation and biological implications: 301-336; Cambridge (Cambridge Univ. Press).
145. SCOTT, W.B. (1888): On some new and little known creodonts.- J. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, Ser. 2, 9: 155-184; Philadelphia, Penn.
146. SLIJPER, E.J. (1946): Comparative biologic-anatomical investigations on the vertebral column and spinal musclulature of mammals.- Verband. Koninkl. Nederl. Akad. Wetensch., Afd. Natuurk., Sec. 2, 42: 1-128; Amsterdam.
147. SLIJPER, E.J. (1962): Whales.- 1-475; New York, N. Y. (Basic Books Publ. Co.).
148. STROMER, E. (1903): Zeuglodon-Reste aus dem oberen Mitteleocaen des Fajum.- Beitr. Pal. Geol. Oesterreich-Ungarns u. Orients, 15: 1-36; Wien.
149. STROMER E. (1908): Die Archaeoceti des Aegyptischen Eozaens.- Beitr. Pal. Geol. Oesterreich-Ungarns u. Orients, 21: 1-14; Wien.
150. SZALAY, F.S. (1969): Origin and evolution of function of the mesonychid condylarth feeding mechanism.-Evol., 23: 703-720; Lawrence, Kans.
151. SZALAY, F.S. & GOULD, S.J. (1966): Asiatic Mesonychidae (Mammalia, Condylarthra).- Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., Bull., 132: 131-173; New York, N. Y.
152. TARASOFF, F.J., BISAILLON, A., PIERARD, J. & WHIT, A.P. (1972): Locomotory patterns and external morphology of the river otter, sea otter, and harp seal (Mammalia).- Can. J. Zool., 50: 915-929; Ottawa, Can.
153. TAYLOR, M.A. (1987): How tetrapods feed in water: a functional analysis by paradigm.- Zool. J. Linnean Soc., 91: 171-195; London.
154. TAYLOR, M.A. (1992): Functional anatomy of the head of the large aquatic predator Rhomaleosaurus zetlandicus (Plesiosauria, Reptilia) from the Toarcian (Lower Jurassic) of Yorkshire, England.- Phil. Tr. R. Soc. London, Ser B., 335: 247-280; London.
155. TAYLOR, M.A. (1993): Stomach stones for feeding or buoyancy? The occurrence and function of gastroliths in marine tetrapods.- Phil. Tr. R. Soc. London, Ser. B, 341: 163-175; London.
156. TAYLOR, M.A. (1994): Stone, bone, or blubber? Buoyancy control strategies in aquatic tetrapods.- in: MADDOCK, L., BONE, Q. & RAYNER, J.M.V. (eds.): Mechanics and physiology of animal swimming.-151-162; Cambridge (Cambridge Univ. Press).
157. THEWISSEN, J.G.M. (1991): Limb osteology and function of the primitive Paleocene ungulate Pleuraspidotherium, with notes on Tricuspiodon and Dissacus (Mammalia).- Geobios, 24: 483-495; Lyon.
158. THEWISSEN, J.G.M. (1993): Eocene marine mammals from the Himalayan foothills.- Research and Exploration, National Geographic Society, 9: 125-127; Erratum: Research and Exploration, 9: 487; Washington, D. C.
159. THEWISSEN, J.G.M. (1994). Eocene Cetacea from the Kuldana Formation (Pakistan).- J. Vert. Paleont., 14: 49A; Chicago, Ill. (abstr.).
160. THEWISSEN, J.G.M. (1994): Phylogenetic aspects of cetacean origins: a morphological perspective.- J. Mammal. Evol., 2: 157-184; New York, N. Y.
161. THEWISSEN, J.G.M. (1995): Cetacean diversity in fluvial Eocene sediments of Punjab, Pakistan.- J. Vert. Paleont., 15; Chicago, Ill. (abstr.).
162. THEWISSEN, J.G.M. & DOMNING, D.P. (1992): The role of phenacodontids in the origin of the modern orders of ungulate mammals.- J. Vert. Paleont., 12: 494-504; Chicago, Ill.
163. THEWISSEN, J.G.M., GINGERICH, P.D. & RUSSELL, D.E. (1987): Artiodactyla and Perissodactyla (Mammalia) from the early-middle Eocene Kuldana Formation of Kohat (Pakistan).- Contr. Mus. Paleont., Univ. Michigan, 27: 247-274; Ann Arbor, Mich.
164. THEWISSEN, J.G.M. & HUSSAIN, S.T. (1990): Postcranial osteology of the most primitive artiodactyl, Diacodexis pakistanensis (Dichobunidae).- Anat., Hist., Embr., 19: 37-48; Berlin.
165. THEWISSEN, J.G.M. & HUSSAIN, S.T. (1992): Whales with hind limbs and sea cows with tusks from the Eocene of Pakistan.- J. Vert. Paleont., 12: 55A (abstr.).
166. THEWISSEN, J.G.M. & HUSSAIN, S.T. (1993): Origin of underwater hearing in whales.- Nature, 361: 444-445; London.
167. THEWISSEN, J.G.M., HUSSAIN, S.T. & ARIF, M. (1994): Fossil evidence for the origin of aquatic locomotion in archaeocete whales.- Science, 263: 210-212; Washington, D. C.
168. THEWISSEN, J.G.M. & MCKENNA, M.C. (1992): Paleobiogeography of Indo-Pakistan: A response to Briggs, Patterson, and Owen.- Syst. Biol., 41: 248-251; Washington, D. C.
169. THEWISSEN, J.G.M., RUSSELL, D.E., GINGERICH, P.D. & HUSSAIN, S.T. (1983): A new artiodactyl (Mammalia) from the Eocene of North-West Pakistan. Dentition and classification.- Proc. Koninkl. Nederlandse Akad. Wetensch., Ser. B, 86: 153-180; Amsterdam.
170. TING, S. & LI, C. (1987): The skull of Hapalodectes (?Acreodi, Mammalia), with notes on some Chinese Paleocene mesonychids.- Vert. Pal. Asiat., 25: 161-186; Bejing.
171. UHEN, M.D. (1994): Forelimb of late middle Eocene Prozenglodon atrox (Mammalia, Cetacea) from Fayum, Egypt.- J. Vert. Paleont., 14:50A (abstr.); Chicago, Ill.
172. VAN VALEN, L. (1966): Deltatheridia, a new order of mammals.- Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., Bull., 132: 1-126; New York, N. Y.
173. VAN VALEN, L. (1968): Monophyly and diphyly in the origin of whales.- Evol. 22: 37-41; Chicago, Ill.
174. VAN VALKENBURGH, B. (1990): Skeletal and dental predictors of body mass in carnivores.- in: DAMUTH, J. & MACFADDEN, B.J. (eds.): Body size in mammalian paleobiology, Estimation and biological implications: 181-206; Cambridge (Cambridge Univ. Press).
175. WALL, W.P. (1983): The correlation between high limbbone density and aquatic habits in recent mammals.-J. Paleont., 57: 197-207; Lawrence, Kans.
176. WATKINS, W.A. & WARTZOK, D. (1985): Sensory biophysics of marine mammals.- Mar. Mam. Sci., 1: 219-260; Lawrence, Kans.
177. WEBB, P.W (1988): Simple physical principles and vertebral aquatic locomotion.- Am. Zool. 28: 709-725; New Orleans, La.
178. WEBB, P.W. & BLAKE, R.W. (1985): Swimming.- in: HILDEBRAND, M., BRAMBLE, D.M, LIEM, K.F. & WAKE, D.B. (eds.): Functional Vertebrate Morphology: 110-128; Cambridge, Mass. (Belknap Pr., Harvard Univ. Press).
179. WELLS, N.A. (1983): Transient streams in sand-poor redbeds: early-middle Eocene Kuldana Formation of northern Pakistan.- Spec. Publ. Intern. Assoc. Sediment., 6: 393-403; Boston, Mass.
180. WELLS, N.A. (1984): Marine and continental sedimentation in the early Cenozoic Kohat Basin and adjacent northwestern Indo-Pakistan.- Ph.D. Thesis, 1-465, University of Michigan; Ann Arbor, Mich, (unpubl.).
181. WELLS, N.A. & GINGERICH, P.D. (1983): Review of Eocene Anthracobunidae (Mammalia, Proboscidea) with a new genus and species, Jozaria palustris, from the Kuldana Formation of Kohat (Pakistan).- Contr. Mus. Paleont., Univ. Michigan, 26: 117-139; Ann Arbor, Mich.
182. WELLS, N.A. & GINGERICH, P.D. (1987): Paleoenvironmental interpretation of Paleogene strata near Kotli, Azad Kashmir, Northeastern Pakistan.- Kashmir J. Geol., 5: 23-41; Mussafarabad.
183. WEST, R.M. (1980): Middle Eocene large mammal assemblage with Tethyan affinities, Ganda Kas Region, Pakistan.- J. Paleont., 54: 508-533; Lawrence, Kans.
184. WEST, R.M. (1981a): Geology and Paleontology of the Bridger Formation, Southern Green River Basin, Southwestern Wyoming. Part 5. Harpagolestes macrocephalus and comments on structure, function and diversity of Middle Eocene to Oligocenelarge mesonychids.-Contr. Biol. Geol., Milwaukee Public Mus., 43: 1-17; Milwaukee, Wis.
185. WEST, R.M. (1981b): South-Asian middle Eocene moeritheres (Mammalia: Tethytheria).- Ann. Carnegie Mus., 52: 359-373; Pittsburgh, Penn.
186. WEST, R.M. & LUKACS, J.R. (1979): Geology and vertebrate-fossil localities, Tertiary continental rocks, Kala Chitta Hills, Attock District, Pakistan.- Contr. Biol. Geol., Milwaukee Public Mus., 26: 1-20; Milwaukee, Wis.
187. WILLIAMS, T.M. (1989): Swimming by sea otters: adaptations for low energetic cost locomotion.- J. Comp. Physiol. A, 164: 815-824; Berlin.
188. WORTMAN, J.L. (1901-1902): Studies of Eocene Mammalia in the Marsh Collection. Part I. Carnivora. Suborder Creodonta.-Am. J. Sci., 12: 281-296, 377-382, 421-432, 13: 39-46; New Haven, Conn.
189. WORTMAN, J.L. (1901-1902): Studies of Eocene Mammalia in the Marsh Collection. Part I. Carnivora. Suborder Creodonta.-Am. J. Sci., 12: 281-296, 377-382, 421-432, 13: 39-46; New Haven, Conn.
190. WUTTKE M. (1988): Tod und Einbettung der Messeler Wirbeltiere.- in: SCHAAL, S. & ZIEGLER, W. (eds.): Messel - Ein Schaufenster in die Geschichte der Erde und des Lebens: 257-262; Frankfurt/M. (Verl. Waldemar Kramer).
191. ZHOU X., SANDERS, W.J. & GINGERICH, P.D. (1992): Functional and behavioral implications of vertebral structure in Pachyaena ossifraga (Mammalia, Mesonychia).- Contr. Mus. Paleont., Univ. Michigan, 28: 289-319; Ann Arbor, Mich.
192. ZHOU, X., ZHAI, R., GINGERICH, P.D. & CHEN, L. (1995): Skull of a new mesonychid (Mammalia, Mesonychia) from the Paleocene of China.- J. Vert. Paleont., 15: 431-442; Chicago, Ill.