Resources, techniques, and strategies south of the Sahara: Revising the factor endowments perspective on African economic development, 1500-2000 1

Economic History Review

Volumn 61, Issue 3, 2008, Pages 587-624

  Austin, Gareth ^a  

^a LONDON SCHOOL OF ECONOMICS   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AGRICULTURAL LAND; ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT; ECONOMIC HISTORY; EXPLOITATION; HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE; LABOR SUPPLY; STRATEGIC APPROACH;

AFRICA; SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA;

EID: 48649086061     PISSN: 00130117     EISSN: 14680289     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-0289.2007.00409.x     Document Type: Article

References (182)

1. Abramovitz, M. and David, P. A., 'Convergence and deferred catch-up: productivity leadership and the waning of American exceptionalism', in R. Landau, T. Taylor, and G. Wright, eds., The mosaic of economic growth (Stanford, 1996), pp. 21-62.
2. Acemoglu, D., Johnson, S., and Robinson, J., 'Institutions as the fundamental cause of long-term growth', in P. Aghion and S. Durlauf, eds., Handbook of economic growth, vol. 1a (Amsterdam, 2005), pp. 385-472.
3. Adams, W. H., 'When islands expand: Intensification and sustainability', in M. Widgren and J. E. G. Sutton, eds., Islands of intensive agriculture in eastern Africa (Nairobi, 2004), pp. 133-40.
4. Akinola, O. A., 'The state and integrated rural development in southwestern Nigeria, c. 1945-1992, with a case study of the Ekiti-Akoko Agricultural Development Project, Ondo State '(unpub. Ph.D. thesis, London School of Economics, 1995).
5. Allan, W., The African husbandman (Edinburgh, 1965).
6. Anderson, D. M., 'Cultivating pastoralists: Ecology and economy among the Il Chamus of Baringo, 1840-1980', in D. H. Johnson and D. M. Anderson, eds., The ecology of survival: Case studies from northeast African history (1998), pp. 241-66.
7. André, C. and Platteau, J.-P., 'Land relations under unendurable stress: Rwanda caught in the Malthusiantrap', Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization, 34 (1998), pp. 1-47.
8. Arrighi, G., 'Labour supplies in historical perspective: A study of the proletarianization of the African peasantry in Rhodesia', Journal of Development Studies, 3 (1970), pp. 197-234.
9. Austen, R. A., African economic history: Internal development and external dependency (1987).
10. Austen, R. A. and Headrick, D., 'The role of technology in the African past', African Studies Review, 26 (1983), pp. 163-84.
11. Austin, G., 'Indigenous credit institutions in West Africa, c. 1750-1960', in G. Austin and K. Sugihara, eds., Local suppliers of credit in the Third World, 1750-1960 (1993), pp. 93-159.
12. Austin, G., 'Mode of production or mode of cultivation: Explaining the failure of European cocoa planters in competition with African farmers in colonial Ghana', in W. G. Clarence-Smith, ed., Cocoa pioneer fronts since 1800: The role of smallholders, planters and merchants (1996), pp. 154-75.
13. Austin, G., 'African rural capitalism, cocoa farming and economic growth in colonial Ghana', in T. Falola, ed., Ghana in Africa and the world: essays in honor of Adu Boahen (Trenton, N.J. and Asmara, 2003), pp. 437-53.
14. Austin, G., Labour, land and capital in Ghana: From slavery to free labour in Asante, 1807-1956 (Rochester, N.Y., 2005).
15. Ball, R., 'The state and the development of small-scale industry in Ghana since c. 1945' (unpub. Ph.D. thesis, London School of Economics, 1997).
16. Ball, R. and Pounder, L., '"Efficient but poor"revisited', Economic Development and Cultural Change, 44 (1996), pp. 735-60.
17. de Barros, P., 'Bassar: A quantified, chronologically controlled, regional approach to a traditional iron production centre in West Africa', Africa, 56 (1986), pp. 148-74.
18. Bassett, T. J., The peasant cotton revolution in West Africa: Côte d'Ivoire, 1880-1995 (Cambridge, 2001).
19. Bates, R. H., 'Capital, kinship, and conflict: The structuring influence of capital in kinship societies', Canadian Journal of African Studies, 24 (1990), pp. 145-64.
20. Beckett, W. H., Akokoaso: A survey of a Gold Coast village (1956, 1st edn. 1944).
21. Beinart, W., The political economy of Pondoland, 1860-1930 (Cambridge, 1982).
22. Berry, S. S., Cocoa, custom and socio-economic change in rural western Nigeria (Oxford, 1975).
23. Bloom, D. E. and Sachs, J., 'Geography, demography, and economic growth in Africa', Brookings Papers on Economic Activity, 2 (1998), pp. 207-95.
24. Börjeson, L., A history under siege: Intensive agriculture in the Mbulu Highlands, Tanzania, 19th century to the present (Stockholm, 2004).
25. Boserup, E., The conditions of agricultural growth: The economics of agrarian change under population pressure (1965).
26. Brammer, H., 'Soils', in J. B. Wills, ed., Agriculture and land use in Ghana (1962), pp. 88-102.
27. Browne, A. W., 'Rural industry and appropriate technology: The lessons of narrow-loom Ashanti weaving', African Affairs, 82 (1983), pp. 29-41.
28. Bundy, C., The rise and fall of the South African peasantry (1979).
29. Byfield, J., The bluest hands: A social and economic history of women dyers in Abeokuta (Nigeria), 1890-1940 (Portsmouth, N.H., 2002).
30. Cameron, V. L., Across Africa, vol. I (1877).
31. Chrétien, J.-P., The great lakes of Africa: Two thousand years of history, S. Strauss, trans. (New York, 2003; French original: Paris, 2000).
32. Clarence-Smith, W. G., ed., Cocoa pioneer fronts since 1800: The role of smallholders, planters and merchants (1996).
33. Cochet, H., 'Burundi: Quelques questions sur l'origine et la différenciation d'un système agraire', African Economic History, 26 (1998), pp. 15-62.
34. Collier, P. and Lal, D., 'Why poor people get rich: Kenya 1960-79', World Development, 12 (1984), pp. 1007-18.
35. Collier, P. and Lal, D., Labour and poverty in Kenya 1900-1980 (Oxford, 1986).
36. Cooper, F., Decolonization and African society: The labor question in French and British Africa (Cambridge, 1996).
37. Cowen, M. P. and Shenton, R. W., 'Bankers, peasants, and land in British West Africa 1905-37', Journal of Peasant Studies, 19 (1991), pp. 26-58.
38. Curtin, P. D., 'The lure of Bambuk gold', Journal of African Economies, 14 (1973), pp. 623-31.
39. Curtin, P. D., Economic change in precolonial Africa: Senegambia in the era of the slave trade (Madison, 1975).
40. David, P. A., Technical choice, innovation and economic growth: Essays on American and British experience in the nineteenth century (Cambridge, 1975).
41. Dawson, J., 'Development of small-scale industry in Ghana: A case study of Kumasi', in H. Thomas, F. Uribe-Echevarria, and H. Romijn, eds., Small-scale production: Strategies for industrial restructuring (1991).
42. Dean, W., 'The planter as entrepreneur: The case of Sao Paulo', Hispanic American Historical Review, 36 (1966), pp. 138-52.
43. Diamond, J., Guns, germs and steel: A short history of everybody for the last 13,000 years (1997).
44. Domar, E. D., 'The causes of slavery or serfdom: A hypothesis', Journal of Economic History, 30 (1970), pp. 18-32.
45. Drummond-Thompson, P., 'The rise of entrepreneurs in Nigerian motor transport: A study in indigenous enterprise', Journal of Transport History, 14 (1993), pp. 46-63.
46. Durand, J. D., 'The modern expansion of world population', Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 111, 3 (1967), pp. 136-59.
47. Durand, J. D., Historical estimates of world population: An evaluation (Philadelphia, 1974).
48. Eldredge, E. A., A South African kingdom (Cambridge, 1993).
49. Eltis, D., Economic growth and the ending of the transatlantic slave trade (Cambridge, 1987).
50. Eltis, D., 'The volume and structure of the Atlantic slave trade: A reassessment', William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd ser., LVIII (2001), pp. 17-46.
51. Engerman, S. L. and Sokoloff, K. L., 'Factor endowments, institutions, and differential paths of growth among New World economies', in S. Haber, ed., How Latin America fell behind (Stanford, 1997), pp. 260-304.
52. Etherington, N., 'African economic experiments in colonial Natal, 1845-1880', African Economic History, 5 (1978), pp. 1-15.
53. Evans, E. and Richardson, D., 'Hunting for rents: The economics of slaving in pre-colonial Africa', Economic History Review, XLVIII (1995), pp. 665-86.
54. Fairhead, J. and Leach, M., Misreading the African landscape: Society and ecology in a forest-savanna mosaic (Cambridge, 1996).
55. Feinstein, C., Conquest, discrimination and development: An economic history of South Africa (Cambridge, 2005).
56. Fenoaltea, S., 'Europe in the African mirror: The slave trade and the rise of Feudalism', Rivista di Storia Economica, 15 (1999), pp. 123-65.
57. Fetter, B., The creation of Elizabethville, 1910-1940 (Stanford, 1976).
58. Ford, J., The role of trypanosomiases in African ecology (Oxford, 1971).
59. Forrest, T., The advance of African capital: The growth of Nigerian private enterprise (Edinburgh, 1994).
60. Frankel, S. H., Capital investment in Africa (New York, 1938 [Oxford, 1st edn. 1938]).
61. Goody, J., Technology, tradition and the state in Africa (1971).
62. Goody, J., Production and reproduction: A comparative study of the domestic domain (Cambridge, 1976).
63. Goody, J., 'Slavery in time and space', in J. L. Watson, ed., Asian and African systems of slavery (Oxford, 1980), pp. 16-42.
64. Goucher, C. L., 'Iron is iron 'til it rust: Trade and ecology in the decline of West African iron-smelting', Journal of African History, 22 (1981), pp. 179-89.
65. Greif, A., Institutions and the path to the modern economy (New York, 2006).
66. Gump, J., 'Ecological change and pre-Shakan state formation', African Economic History, 18 (1989), pp. 57-71.
67. Guy, J., 'Ecological factors in the rise of Shaka and the Zulu kingdom', in S. Marks and A. Atmore, eds., Economy and society in pre-industrial South Africa (1980), pp. 102-19.
68. Habakkuk, H. J., American and British technology in the nineteenth century (Cambridge, 1962).
69. Harms, R. W., River of wealth, river of sorrow: The central Zaire basin in the era of the slave and ivory trade, 1500-1891 (New Haven, Conn., 1981).
70. Harries, P., 'Kinship, ideology and the nature of pre-colonial labour migration: Labour migration from the Delagoa Bay hinterland to South Africa, up to 1895', in S. Marks and R. Rathbone, eds., Industrialisation and social change in South Africa (Harlow, 1982), pp. 142-66.
71. Hawthorne, W., 'Nourishing a stateless society during the slave trade: the rise of Balanta paddy-rice production in Guinea-Bissau', Journal of African History, 42 (2001), pp. 1-24.
72. Hawthorne, W., Planting rice and harvesting slaves: Transformations along the Guinea-Bissau coast, 1400-1900 (Portsmouth, N.H., 2003).
73. Hay, M. J., 'Luo women and economic change during the colonial period', in N. Hafkin and E. Bay, eds., Women in Africa: Studies in social and economic change (Stanford, 1976), pp. 87-109.
74. Heap, S., 'The development of motor transport in the Gold Coast, 1900-39', Journal of Transport History, 11 (1990), pp. 19-37.
75. Henige, D., 'Measuring the immeasurable: The Atlantic slave trade, West African population and the Pyrrhonian critic', Journal of African History, 27 (1986), pp. 295-313.
76. Herbst, J., States and power in Africa: Comparative lessons in authority and control (Princeton, N.J., 2000).
77. Hill, P., The migrant cocoa-farmers of Southern Ghana (Cambridge, 1963; 2nd edn. with preface by G. Austin, Hamburg, 1997).
78. Hill, P., Population, prosperity and poverty: Rural Kano 1900 and 1970 (Cambridge, 1977).
79. Hogendorn, J. S. and Gemery, H. A., 'Assessing productivity in precolonial African agriculture and industry, 1500-1800', African Economic History, 19 (1990-1), pp. 31-5.
80. Hogendorn, J. S. and Scott, K., 'Very large-scale agricultural projects: the lessons of the East African groundnut scheme', African Economic History, 10 (1981), pp. 87-115.
81. Hopkins, A. G., An economic history of West Africa (1973).
82. Iliffe, J., 'The origins of African population growth', Journal of African History, 30 (1989), pp. 165-9.
83. Iliffe, J., Africans: The history of a continent (Cambridge, 1995).
84. Isaacman, A. and Roberts, R., eds., Cotton, colonialism, and social history in sub-Saharan Africa (Portsmouth, N.H., 1995).
85. Jacobs, N., Environment, power, and injustice: A South African history (Cambridge, 2003).
86. Johnson, M., 'Technology, competition, and African crafts', in C. Dewey and A. G. Hopkins, eds., The imperial impact: Studies in the economic history of Africa and Asia (1978), pp. 259-69, 378-9.
87. Johnson, M., 'Elephants for want of towns', in C. Fyfe and D. MacMaster, eds., African historical demography II (Edinburgh, 1981), pp. 315-30.
88. Kanogo, T., Squatters and the roots of Mau Mau (1987).
89. Kea, R. A., Settlements, trade, and polities in the seventeenth-century Gold Coast (Baltimore, Md., 1982).
90. Kilby, P., 'Manufacturing in colonial Africa', in P. Duignan and L. H. Gann, eds., Colonialism in Africa, 1870-1960, IV: The economics of colonialism (Cambridge, 1975), pp. 470-520.
91. King, K., Jua Kali Kenya: Change and development in an informal economy, 1970-95 (1996).
92. Klein, M. A., 'The slave trade and decentralized societies', Journal of African History, 42 (2001), pp. 49-65.
93. Kopytoff, I., 'The internal African frontier: The making of African political culture', in I. Kopytoff, ed., The African frontier: The reproduction of traditional societies (Bloomington, 1987), pp. 3-84.
94. Kriger, C. E., Pride of men: Ironworking in 19th century west Central Africa (Portsmouth, N.H., 1999).
95. Law, R., The horse in West African history: The role of the horse in the societies of pre-colonial West Africa (1980).
96. Law, R., 'Trade and politics behind the slave coast: The lagoon traffic and the rise of Lagos, 1500-1800', Journal of African History, 20 (1983), pp. 321-48.
97. Law, R., ed., From slave trade to 'legitimate'commerce: The commercial transition in nineteenth-century West Africa (Cambridge, 1995).
98. Lewis, S. R., Jr., The economics of apartheid (New York, 1990).
99. Lewis, W. A., Report on industrialisation and the Gold Coast (Accra, 1953).
100. Lipton, M., 'The theory of the optimising peasant', Journal of Development Studies, 4 (1968), pp. 327-51.
101. Lipton, M., Capitalism and apartheid: South Africa, 1910-84 (Aldershot, 1986).
102. Lovejoy, P. E., 'Plantations in the economy of the Sokoto Caliphate', Journal of African History, 19 (1978), pp. 341-68.
103. Lovejoy, P. E., 'The volume of the Atlantic slave trade: A synthesis', Journal of African History, 23 (1982), pp. 473-501.
104. Lovejoy, P. E., Transformations in slavery: A history of slavery in Africa (Cambridge, 1983).
105. Lovejoy, P. E., Salt of the desert sun: A history of salt production and trade in the Central Sudan (Cambridge, 1986).
106. Lovejoy, P. E. and Hogendorn, J. S., Slow death for slavery: The course of abolition in northern Nigeria, 1897-1936 (Cambridge, 1993).
107. Lovejoy, P. E. and Richardson, D., 'British abolition and its impact on slave prices along the Atlantic coast of Africa, 1783-1850', Journal of Economic History, 55 (1995), pp. 98-119.
108. McCann, J. C., People of the plow: An agricultural history of Ethiopia, 1800-1990 (Madison, 1995).
109. McCann, J. C., Maize and grace: Africa's encounter with a new world crop, 1500-2000 (Cambridge, Mass., 2005).
110. McCaskie, T. C., Asante identities: History and modernity in an African village, 1850-1950 (Edinburgh, 2000).
111. Maddison, A., The world economy: A millennial perspective (Paris, 2001).
112. Mahadi, A. and Inikori, J. E., 'Population and capitalist development in precolonial West Africa: Kasar Kano in the nineteenth century', in D. D. Cordell and J. W. Gregory, eds., African population and capitalism: historical perspectives (Madison, 2nd edn. 1987), pp. 62-73.
113. Manning, P., Slavery and African life (Cambridge, 1990).
114. Miers, S., 'Slavery to freedom in sub-Saharan Africa: Expectations and reality', in H. Temperley, ed., After slavery: Emancipation and its discontents (2000), pp. 237-64.
115. Miller, J. C., Way of death: Merchant capitalism and the Angolan slave trade, 1730-1830 (1988).
116. Mitchell, P., African connections: Archaeological perspectives on Africa and the wider world (Walnut Creek, Calif., 2005).
117. Mosley, P., The settler economies: Studies in the economic history of Kenya and Southern Rhodesia, 1900-1963 (Cambridge, 1983).
118. Munro, J. F., Africa and the international economy, 1800-1960 (1976).
119. Murton, J., 'Population growth and poverty in Machakos District, Kenya', Geographical Journal, 165 (1999), pp. 37-46.
120. Myint, H., The economics of the developing countries (4th edn. 1973).
121. Nattrass, N., 'Controversies about capitalism and apartheid in South Africa: An economic perspective', Journal of Southern African Studies, 17 (1991), pp. 654-77.
122. Nieboer, H. J., Slavery as an industrial system (New York, 1971; reprint of 1910 revised edn.).
123. Northrup, N., Beyond the bend in the river: African labor in eastern Zaire, 1865-1940 (Athens, Ohio, 1988).
124. Nweke, F. I., Spencer, D. S. C., Lynam, J. K., eds., The cassava transformation: Africa's best-kept secret (East Lansing, Mich., 2002).
125. Oroge, E. A., 'Iwofa: An historical survey of the Yoruba institution of indenture '[originally in African Economic History, 14 (1985), pp. 75-106], reprinted in P. E. Lovejoy and T. Falola, eds., Pawnship, slavery, and Colonialism in Africa (Trenton, N.J. and Asmara, 2003), pp. 325-56.
126. Orvis, S., 'The Kenyan agrarian debate: A reappraisal', African Studies Review, 36 (1993), pp. 23-48.
127. Palmer, R. and Parsons, N., eds., The roots of rural poverty in Central and Southern Africa (1977).
128. Park, M., Travels into the interior of Africa (1954, 1st edn. 1799).
129. Phillips, A., The enigma of colonialism: British policy in West Africa (1989).
130. Phillips, J. F. V., Agriculture and ecology in Africa (1959).
131. Phiri, K. M., 'African history: An assessment and agenda', African Studies Review, 30 (1987), pp. 35-47.
132. Picton, J. and Mack, J., African textiles (2nd edn. 1989).
133. Platteau, J.-P., 'The food crisis in Africa: A comparative structural analysis', in J. Drèze, A. Sen, and A. Hussain, eds., The political economy of hunger (Oxford, 1995), pp. 445-553.
134. Pole, L. M., 'Iron production in West Africa', Journal of African History, 23 (1982), pp. 503-13.
135. Reid, R., Political power in pre-colonial Buganda: Economy, society and warfare in the nineteenth century (Oxford, 2002).
136. Richards, P., 'Farming systems and agrarian change in West Africa', Progress in Human Geography, 7 (1983), pp. 1-39.
137. Richards, P., Indigenous agricultural revolution: Ecology and food production in West Africa (1985).
138. Roberts, R., 'Linkages and multiplier effects in the ecologically specialized trade of precolonial West Africa', Cahiers d'études africaines, 20 (1980-1), pp. 135-48.
139. de Rouw, A., 'The fallow period as a weed-break in shifting cultivation (tropical wet forests)', Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 54 (1995), pp. 31-43.
140. Ruf, F., Booms et crises du cacao: Les vertiges de l'or brun (Montpellier, 1995).
141. Ruf, F., 'From forest rent to tree-capital: Basic "laws"of cocoa supply', in F. Ruf and P. S. Siswoputranto, eds., Cocoa cycles: the economics of cocoa supply (Cambridge, 1995), pp. 1-53.
142. Schmidt, P. R., ed., The culture and technology of African iron production (Gainesville, 1996).
143. Schoenbrun, D. L., A green place, a good place: Agrarian change, gender, and social identity in the great lakes region to the 15th century (Portsmouth, N.H., 1998).
144. Schultz, T. W., Transforming traditional agriculture (New Haven, Conn., 1964).
145. Searing, J. F., '"No kings, no lords, no slaves": Ethnicity and religion among the Sereer-Safèn of Western Bawol, 1700-1914', Journal of African History, 43 (2002), pp. 407-29.
146. Sender, J., 'Africa's economic performance: Limitations of the current consensus', Journal of Economic Perspectives, 13 (1999), pp. 89-114.
147. Sender, J. and Smith, S., The development of capitalism in Africa (1986).
148. Shea, P. J., 'Economies of scale and the indigo dyeing industry of precolonial Kano', Kano Studies, 1, 2 (1975), pp. 55-61.
149. Shea, P. J., 'The development of an export oriented dyed cloth industry in Kano emirate in the nineteenth century '(unpub. Ph.D. thesis, Univ. of Wisconsin-Madison, 1975).
150. Shinnie, P., 'Early Asante: Is Wilks right?', in J. Hunwick and N. Lawler, eds., The cloth of many colored silks (Evanston, Ill., 1996), pp. 195-203.
151. Singer, H. W., 'Demographic factors in Subsaharan economic development', in M. J. Herskovits and M. Harwitz, eds., Economic transition in Africa (1964), pp. 241-61.
152. Smith, R. S., 'The canoe in West African history', Journal of African History, 9 (1970), pp. 515-33.
153. Sokoloff, K. L. and Dollar, D., 'Agricultural seasonality and the organization of manufacturing in early industrial economies: The contrast between England and the United States', Journal of Economic History, 57 (1997), pp. 288-321.
154. Spear, T. and Waller, R., eds., Being Maasai (1993).
155. Stone, G. D., Netting, R. McC., and Stone, M. P., 'Seasonality, labor scheduling, and agricultural intensification in the Nigerian savanna', American Anthropologist, 92 (1990), pp. 7-23.
156. Sutton, J. E. G., 'Irrigation and soil-conservation in African agricultural history', Journal of African History, 25 (1984), pp. 25-41.
157. Sutton, J. E. G., 'Engaruka: Irrigation agriculture in the northern Tanzanaian Rift Valley before the Maasai era', Azania, 33 (1998), pp. 1-37.
158. Sutton, J. E. G., 'Engaruka', in M. Widgren and J. E. G. Sutton, eds., Islands of intensive agriculture in eastern Africa (Nairobi, 2004), pp. 114-32.
159. Szereszewski, R., Structural changes in the economy of Ghana, 1891-1911 (1965).
160. Tabutin, D. and Schoumaker, B., 'La démographie de l'Afrique au sud du Sahara des années 1950 aux années 2000: Synthése des changements et bilan statistique', Population, 59 (2004), pp. 521-620.
161. Thornton, J., 'Demography and history in the Kingdom of Kongo, 1550-1750', Journal of African History, 18 (1977), pp. 507-30.
162. Thornton, J., The Kingdom of Kongo: Civil war and transition, 1674-1718 (Madison, 1983).
163. Thornton, J., 'Precolonial African industry and the Atlantic trade, 1500-1800', African Economic History, 19 (1990-1), pp. 1-19.
164. Thornton, J., 'The historian and the precolonial African economy', African Economic History, 19 (1990-1), pp. 45-54.
165. Thornton, J., Africa and Africans in the making of the Atlantic World, 1400-1680 (Cambridge, 1992).
166. Tiffen, M. and Mortimore, M., 'Malthus controverted: The role of capital and technology in growth and environment recovery in Kenya', World Development, 22 (1994), pp. 997-1010.
167. Tiffen, M., Mortimore, M., and Gichuki, F., More people, less erosion: environmental recovery in Kenya (Chichester, 1994).
168. Tosh, J., 'Lango agriculture during the early colonial period: Land and labour in a cash-crop economy', Journal of African History, 19 (1978), pp. 415-39.
169. Tosh, J., 'The cash-crop revolution in tropical Africa: An agricultural reappraisal', African Affairs, 79 (1980), pp. 79-94.
170. Vail, L. and White, L., Capitalism and colonialism in Mozambique (1980).
171. Vansina, J., The children of Woot: A history of the Kuba peoples (Madison, 1978).
172. Vansina, J., 'Towards a history of lost corners of the world', Economic History Review, 2nd ser., XXXV (1982), pp. 165-78.
173. Vansina, J., Paths in the rain forest (1990).
174. Vaughan, M., 'Food production and family labour in Southern Malawi: The Shire Highlands and Upper Shire Valley in the early colonial period', Journal of African History, 23 (1982), pp. 351-64.
175. Weiskel, T., 'Toward an archaeology of colonialism: Elements in the ecological transformation of the Ivory Coast', in D. Worster, ed., The ends of the earth (Cambridge, 1988), pp. 141-71.
176. Widgren, M., 'Towards a historical geography of intensive farming in eastern Africa', in M. Widgren and J. E. G. Sutton, eds., Islands of intensive agriculture in eastern Africa (Nairobi, 2004), pp. 1-18.
177. Widgren, M. and Sutton, J. E. G., eds., Islands of intensive agriculture in eastern Africa (Nairobi, 2004).
178. Wilks, I., 'Land, labor, gold and the forest kingdom of Asante: A model of early change', in I. Wilks, Forests of gold: Essays on the Akan and the kingdom of Asante (Athens, Ohio, 1993), pp. 41-90.
179. Wilson, K. B., 'Trees in fields in Southern Zimbabwe', Journal of Southern African Studies, 15 (1989), pp. 369-83.
180. World Bank, World development report 1989 (Washington, D.C., 1989).
181. Zeleza, T., A modern economic history of Africa, I, the nineteenth century (Dakar, 1993).
182. van Zwanenberg, R. M. A. with King, A., An economic history of Kenya and Uganda, 1800-1970 (1975).