"Beyond this world of transiency and impermanence": Japanese Americans, Dharma Bums, and the making of American Buddhism during the Early Cold War Years

Pacific Historical Review

Volumn 77, Issue 3, 2008, Pages 423-451

  Masatsugu, Michael K ^a  

^a TOWSON UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CULTURAL HISTORY; CULTURAL RELATIONS; CULTURAL TRADITION; ETHNIC GROUP; RACIAL IDENTITY; RELIGION; TEACHING; WAR;

ASIA; EURASIA; FAR EAST; JAPAN;

EID: 48349145268     PISSN: 00308684     EISSN: 15338584     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1525/phr.2008.77.3.423     Document Type: Article

References (143)

1. Robert P. Jackson, "Buddhism and the Beat Generation," American Buddhist, 1: 8 (1957), 1 The author wishes to thank Hiroshi Kashiwagi for allowing him access to his personal collection of American Buddhist.
2. Taitetsu Unno, "Some Insights into Life from the Dhammapada: A Collection of the Sayings of Buddha," American Buddhist, 2: 8 (1958), 1, 6.
3. Scholarship on Buddhism in the United States has grappled with the problem of the categorization of Buddhists. See Charles S. Prebish, "Two Buddhisms Reconsidered," Buddhist Studies Review, 10 (1993), 187-206.
4. See also Rick Fields, "Divided Dharma: White Buddhists, Ethnic Buddhists, and Racism," in Charles S. Prebish and Kenneth K. Tanaka, eds., Faces of Buddhism in America (Berkeley, 1998), 196-206
5. Jan Nattier, "Who is a Buddhist? Charting the Landscape of Buddhist America," in ibid., 183-195
6. and Ryo Imamura, "Buddhist and Western Psychotherapies: An Asian American Perspective," in ibid., 228-237.
7. For a discussion of race and the problem of categorization of Buddhists in the United States, see bell hooks, "Waking up to Racism," Tricycle: The Buddhist Review, 4: 1 (1994), 42-45.
8. Recent works that analyze the impact of American Orientalist discourse upon U.S. culture include Jane Iwamura, "The Oriental Monk in American Popular Culture," in Bruce Forbes and Jeffrey Mahan, eds., Religion and Popular Culture in America (Berkeley, 2000), 25-43
9. Christina Klein, Cold War Orientalism: Asia in the Middlebrow Imagination (Berkeley, 2003)
10. and Naoko Shibusawa, America's Geisha Ally: Reimagining the Japanese Enemy (Cambridge, Mass., 2006).
11. Studies that have addressed the impact of Orientalist discourse in shaping the racialization of Asian Americans include Gary Y. Okihiro, Margins and Mainstreams: Asians in American History and Culture (Seattle, 1994)
12. Robert G. Lee, Orientals: Asian Americans in Popular Culture (Philadelphia, 1999)
13. John Kuo Wei Tchen, New York Before Chinatown: Orientalism and the Shaping of American Culture, 1776-1882 (Baltimore, 1999)
14. and Chiou-Ling Yeh, "In the Traditions of China and in the Freedom of America: The Making of San Francisco's Chinese New Year Festivals," American Quarterly, 56 (2004), 395-420.
15. Judith Snodgrass has specifically addressed the role of American Orientalism in shaping representations and understandings of Buddhism in U.S. culture. See Judith Snodgrass, Presenting Japanese Buddhism to the West: Orientalism, Occidentalism, and the Columbian Exposition (Chapel Hill, N.C., 2003).
16. For the idea of the nation as an imagined community, see Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (London, 1991).
17. For major studies centered on European American Buddhist converts, see Thomas A. Tweed, The American Encounter with Buddhism, 1844-1912:
18. Victorian Culture and the Limits of Dissent (Bloomington, Ind., 1992).
19. Stephen Prothero, The White Buddhist: The Asian Odyssey of Henry Steel Olcott (Bloomington, Ind., 1996), examines European and European American Buddhists as cultural brokers through the life of Henry Steel Olcott and the development of Theosophy. Major studies centered on Asian American Buddhists include Tetsuden Kashima, Buddhism in America: The Social Organization of an Ethnic Religious Institution (Westport, Conn., 1977)
20. David K. Yoo, "Enlightened Identities: Buddhism and Japanese Americans of California, 1924-1941," Western Historical Quarterly, 27 (1996), 281-31
21. Irene Lin, "Journey to the Far West: Chinese Buddhism in America," in David K. Yoo, ed., New Spiritual Homes: Religion and Asian Americans (Honolulu, 1999), 134-168
22. and Sharon A. Suh, Being Buddhist in a Christian World: Gender and Community in a Korean American Temple (Seattle, 2004).
23. Studies by Rick Fields and Richard Hughes Seager present an overview of the history of Buddhism in America that includes a discussion of both white convert Buddhists and Asian American Buddhists. See Rick Fields, How the Swans Came to the Lake: A Narrative History of Buddhism in America (Boston, 1992),
24. and Richard Hughes Seager, Buddhism in America (New York, 1999).
25. Two recent studies have taken a comparative approach to the study of Buddhists in the United States and have sought to develop categories that transcend the division between ethnic and convert Buddhists. See Wendy Cadge, Heartwood: The First Generation of Theravada Buddhism in America (Chicago, 2005)
26. Lori Pierce, "Constructing American Buddhisms: Discourses of Race and Religion in Territorial Hawai'i" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Hawai'i, 2001).
27. For a more recent example of the casting of Japanese American Buddhists as insular, see Alfred Bloom, "Shin Buddhism in America: A Social Perspective," in Prebish and Tanaka, eds., The Faces of Buddhism in America, 31-48.
28. For a historical analysis of the construction of Asian Americans as a "model minority" during the Cold War, see Lee, Orientals, 145-179,
29. and Klein, Cold War Orientalism, 223-263.
30. John Bodnar examined immigrant attempts to construct a world of meaning within the context of a transplanted culture. See John Bodnar, The Transplanted: A History of Immigrants in Urban America (Bloomington, Ind., 1985).
31. Some of the early historical studies of Japanese Americans include Roger Daniels, The Politics of Prejudice: The Anti-Japanese Movement in California and the Struggle for Japanese Exclusion (Berkeley, 1977)
32. Yuji Ichioka, The Issei: The World of the First Generation Japanese Immigrants, 1885-1924 (New York, 1988)
33. and Gary Y. Okihiro, Cane Fires: The Anti-Japanese Movement in Hawaii 1865-1945 (Philadelphia, 1991).
34. The few works that include discussions of religion in shaping racial discrimination and formation include Brian Masaru Hayashi, For the Sake of Our Japanese Brethren: Assimilation, Nationalism, and Protestantism Among theJapanese (Stanford, Calif., 1995),
35. and David K. Yoo, Growing Up Nisei: Race, Generation, and Culture among Japanese Americans of California, 1924-1949 (Urbana, III., 2000).
36. Louise H. Hunter, Buddhism in Hawaii: Its Impact on a Yankee Community (Honolulu, 1971), 79. A conservative estimate by the War Relocation Authority concluded that in 1940, 55,000 Japanese American residents - or slightly more than half of those living on the West Coast of the United States - had some affiliation with a Buddhist temple or church.
37. See Robert F. Spencer, "Social Structure of a Contemporary Japanese-American Church," Social Forces, 26 (1948), 281. Pure Land Buddhism first developed in India and later China. Mark Blum has provided an overview of the Pure Land tradition in Japan.
38. See Mark L. Blum, The Origins and Development of Pure Land Buddhism: A Study and Translation of Gyōnen's Jōdo Hōmon Genrushō (New York, 2002).
39. For a discussion of the history of Jōdo Shinshū, see James C. Dobbins, Jōdo Shinshū: Shin Buddhism in Medieval Japan (Bloomington, Ind., 1989).
40. Galen Amstutz, Interpreting Amida: History and Orientalism in the Study of Pure Land Buddhism (Albany, N.Y., 1997), 10.
41. James Dobbins has traced the historical development of the Nembutsu. See Dobbins, Jodo Shinshu, 11-20.
42. Ibid., 54. In most other Japanese Buddhist denominations, including Zen, priests were banned from marriage until an 1872 law created under the Meiji Restoration.
43. See Richard M. Jaffe, Neither Monk Nor Layman: Clerical Marriage in Modern Japanese Buddhism (Princeton, N.J., 2001), 4.
44. Buddhist Church of San Francisco, Buddhist Church of San Francisco, 80 Year History, 1898-1978 (San Francisco, 1978), 16-17.
45. The racialization of Japanese American Buddhists as "Others" depended in part on their demarcation as non-Christians outside the fold of civilization. As Tomás Almaguer has shown, the process of racialization in California had antecedents in the racialization of Native American Indians. See Tomás Almaguer, Racial Fault Lines: The Historical Origins of White Supremacy in California (Berkeley, 1994).
46. For a discussion of Buddhism in late nineteenth-century U.S. popular, academic, and missionary discourse, see Snodgrass, Presenting Japanese Buddhism to the West. Snodgrass has discussed the staging of Buddhism at the World's Parliament of Religions held in conjunction with the World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago in 1893. See, in particular, the introduction, and chapters 1 and 4.
47. Hunter, Buddhism in Hawaii, 72-74
48. Yoo, Growing Up Nisei, 39-40
49. Noriko Asato, Teaching Mikadoism: The Attack on Japanese Language Schools in Hawaii, California, and Washington, 1919-1927 (Honolulu, 2005), 31-34.
50. For a discussion of the influence on sociologists of missionary arguments for conversion, see Henry Yu, Thinking Orientals: Migration, Contact, and Exoticism in Modern America (New York, 2001), 25, 65.
51. or a discussion of biculturalism as a strategy for negotiating identity, see Lon Kurashige, "The Problem of Biculturalism: Japanese American Identity and Festival before World War II," Journal of American History, 86 (2000), 1632-1654,
52. and Kurashige, Japanese American Celebration and Conflict: A History of Ethnic Identity and Festival, 1934-1990 (Berkeley, 2002).
53. For a discussion of the increasing prominence of ideas of culture and cultural pluralism in the first two decades of the twentieth century, see Carl N. Degler, In Search of Human Nature: The Decline and Revival of Darwinism in American Social Thought (New York, 1991).
54. Buddhist Church of San Francisco, Buddhist Church of San Francisco 19.
55. Yoo, Growing Up Nisei, 44.
56. Hunter, Buddhism in Hawaii, 131
57. Yoo, Growing Up Nisei, 44
58. Carl Becker, "Japanese Pure Land Buddhism in Christian America," Buddhist-Christian Studies, 10 (1990), 145.
59. Buddhist Church of San Francisco, Buddhist Church of San Francisco 106-107, 119-123.
60. Yoo, "Enlightened Identities," 288
61. Spencer, "Social Structure of a Contenmporary Japanese-Arnerican Church," 282.
62. Roger Daniels, Prisoners Without Trial: Japanese Americans in World War II (New York, 1993), 45.
63. California Young Buddhist League Leaders, "Minutes of the Emergency Meeting," San Francisco, Jan. 4, 1942, pp. 1-2, box 2, Buddhist Churches of America Collection, Japanese American National Museum, Los Angeles (hereafter Buddhist Churches of America Collection). For a discussion of the legal status of Issei and Nisei, see Angelo N. Ancheta, Race, Rights, and the Asian American Experience (New Brunswick, N.J., 1998), 23.
64. Japanese American Buddhist leaders were responding in part to suggestions by representatives of the U.S. federal government that they might be able to retain property in the name of second-generation Nisei who were deemed "pro-American." For more, see Greg Robinson, By Order of the President: FDR and the Internment of Japanese Americans (Cambridge, Mass., 2001), 78-79
65. Lon Kurashige has provided an insightful reconsideration of historiographical interpretations of interethnic generational conflict in relation to wartime ethnic organizational politics and protest. See Lon Kurashige, "Resistance, Collaboration, and Manzanar Protest," Pacific Historical Review, 70 (2001), 387-417.
66. Kashima, Buddhism in America, 59
67. Donald Tuck, Buddhist Churches of America (Lewiston, N.Y., 1987), 284.
68. For a discussion of Buddhism in U.S.-sponsored "internment camps," see Kashima, Buddhism in America, and Duncan Ryuken Williams, "Camp Dharma: Japanese-American Buddhist Identity and the Internment Experience of World War II," in Charles S. Prebish and Martin Baumann, eds., Westward Dharma: Buddhism Beyond Asia (Berkeley, 2002), 191-200.
69. Scholars of Japanese American history have focused attention on the period before 1924 and during World War II. Two studies that examine the postwar period include Tetsuden Kashima, 'Japanese American Internees Return, 1945-1955: Readjustment and Social Amnesia," Phylon, 41 (1980), 107-115,
70. and Charlotte Brooks, "In the Twilight Zone Between Black and White: Japanese American Resettlement and Community in Chicago, 1942-1945," Journal of American History, 86 (2000), 1655-1687.
71. Reverend T. Terakawa, "Buddhism and Democracy," Bliss of Nirvana 2: 2 (1946), 7, box 4, Buddhist Churches of America Collection.
72. As several historians have recently demonstrated, the federal government during the Cold War promoted the image of the United States as a multiracial, multi-cultural democracy, as the United States, the Soviet Union, and, later, the People's Republic of China sought allies and adherents among nations emerging from European colonialism. See Mary L. Dudziak, Cold War Civil Rights: Race and the Image of American Democracy (Princeton, NJ., 2002),
73. and Thomas Borstelmann, The Cold War and the Color-line: American Race Relations in a Global Arena (Cambridge, Mass., 2001).
74. Misao Nakamura, "Bussei listen to civic leader," Rafu Shimpo, Aug. 28, 1948, p. 1.
75. For a discussion of the San Francisco Council for Civic Unity and the liberal coalition from which it emerged, see William Issel, "Liberalism and Urban Policy in San Francisco from the 1930s to the 1960s," Western Historical Quarterly, 22 (1991), especially 433-441.
76. A major celebration by the Buddhist Churches of America garnered coverage in Life magazine. See "Buddhist jubilee: San Francisco Japanese have 50th anniversary," Life, Sept. 20, 1948, pp. 76-78.
77. Tweed, The American Encounter with Buddhism
78. Snodgrass, Presenting Japanese Buddhism to the West, 46-47.
79. T. J. Jackson Lears, No Place of Grace: Antimodernism and the Transformation of United States Culture, 1880-1920 (Chicago, 1994).
80. For a discussion of Buddhism as both a source of anxiety and as a useful point of comparison with Christianity, see Snodgrass, Presenting Japanese Buddhism to the West, chapter 4, and Tweed, The American Encounter with Buddhism, 26-27.
81. Ibid., 26-29
82. Richard Hughes Seager, The World's Parliament of Religions: The East/ West Encounter, Chicago, 1893 (Bloomington, Ind., 1995)
83. Snodgrass, Presenting Japanese Buddhism to the West.
84. See Fields, How the Swans Came to the Lake, chapter 10.
85. See John W. Dower, Embracing Defeat: Japan in the Wake of World War II (New York, 1999), 206-207.
86. For a discussion of middlebrow cultural production on Asia, see Klein, Cold War Orientalism, and Shibusawa, America's Geisha Ally.
87. For a discussion of the development of Asian studies as a component of area studies during the Cold War years, see Bruce Cummings, "Boundary Displacement: Area Studies and International Studies During and After the Cold War," in Christopher Simpson, ed., Universities and Empire: Money and Politics in the Social Sciences During the Cold War (New York, 1998),
88. and Vicente L. Rafael, "The Cultures of Area Studies in the United States," Social Text, 41 (Winter 1994), 91-111.
89. The first Buddhist studies program in the United States was established in 1962 at the University of Wisconsin. "Buddhist Studies at the University of Wisconsin," American Buddhist, 5 (Jan. 1961), 3
90. see also Douglas Dunsmore Daye, "Memorial Tribute to Richard Hugh Robinson, 1926-1970," Philosophy East and West, 22 (1972), 291.
91. Joseph M. Kitagawa, "Daisetz Teitaro Suzuki, 1870-1966," History of Religions, 6 (1967), 265-269.
92. Studies focused on white convert Buddhism in the Bay Area during the 1950s have been scattered and sparse, focusing primarily on individuals including Jack Kerouac, Allen Ginsberg, Kenneth Rexroth, Gary Snyder, and Philip Whalen. Interactions between converts and Japanese Americans have generally been reduced to a brief mention of the Berkeley Buddhist Study Group. See, for example, Fields, How the Swans Came to the Lake Carole Tomkinson, ed., Big Sky Mind: Buddhism and the Beat Generation (New York, 1995), 25-26.
93. Alan W. Watts, In My Own Way: An Autobiography, 1915-1965 (New York, 1972), 236.
94. Peter Tamony, "Beat Generation: Beat, Beatniks," Western Folklore 28 (1969), 276.
95. Three of Alan Watts's radio programs have been transcribed in Alan Watts, Zen and the Beat Way (Boston, 1997).
96. Watts, In My Own Way, 66, 74-75.
97. See, for example, Alan Watts, The Spirit of Zen: A Way of Life, Work, and Art in the Far East (New York, 1958), 25-30.
98. Ibid., 17
99. quoted in Alan Watts, Zen and the Beat Way, 8. Presented to a practitioner by a Zen master, koans were seemingly irresolvable riddles designed to jar recipients from conventional frames of reference and understanding, thus developing mindfulness.
100. Watts, In My Own Way, 142-143
101. Monica Furlong, Genuine Fake: A Biography of Alan Watts (London, 1986), 69-70.
102. In clarifying the definition of the "Beat Generation," a variety of scholarly and popular works have distinguished among artistic movements, lifestyles, and the media-invented term "Beatniks." Scholarship has also sought to differentiate or demonstrate overlap among contributors to the "San Francisco Renaissance" and the "Beat scene." See, for example, Tamony, "Beat Generation: Beat, Beatniks"; Barbara Ehrenreich, The Hearts of Men: American Dreams and the Flight from Commitment (New York, 1983)
103. Steven Watson, The Birth of the Beat Generation: Visionaries, Rebels, and Hipsters (New York, 1995), 3-5, 192-193
104. Michael Davidson, The San Francisco Renaissance: Poetics and Community at Mid-century (Cambridge, U.K., 1991), 60-61. In this article, I focus on key writers and poets of the Beat generation who were interested in Buddhism, including Ginsberg, Kerouac, Snyder, and Whalen, as well as a broader circle of Bay Area poets, artists, students, and Buddhist practitioners who either interacted with this circle or were directly influenced by them.
105. Stephen Prothero, "On the Holy Road: The Beat Movement as Spiritual Protest," Harvard Theological Review, 84 (1991), 205-222, especially 216.
106. Elaine Tyler May, Homeward Bound: American Families in the Cold War Era (New York, 1999).
107. Stephen J. Whitfield has discussed the appeal of religious revival in an atomic age. See Stephen J. Whitfield, The Culture of the Cold War (Baltimore, 1996).
108. Jon Panish, "Kerouac's The Subterraneans: A Study of Romantic Primitivism," MELUS, 19 (Autumn 1994), 107-123
109. Jonathan Paul Eburne, "Trafficking in the Void: Burroughs, Kerouac, and the Consumption of Otherness," Modern Fiction Studies, 43 (1997), 53-92.
110. Preston Whaley, Jr., has argued that Kerouac and other Beat writers were able to "disable the grinding pinions of primitivism through [their] own vernacular take on oriental mysticism." Surprisingly, he does not critique the role of Orientalist discourse in his argument about the disabling of the problematic racist aspects of primitivism. See Preston Whaley, Jr., Blows Like a Horn: Beat Writing, jazz, Style, and Markets in the Transformation of U.S. Culture (Cambridge, Mass., 2004), 27-32.
111. Jack Kerouac, Dharma Bums (New York, 1958), 10-12, 16-17. The Tang Dynasty lasted from 618 through 907 A.D.
112. Jane Iwamura has assessed the transformation of the Oriental monk, interpreting its post-World War II manifestation as a sign of both increased "tolerance and respect" and the further growth of an Orientalist "system of representation" that "reveals the interests and concerns of the Occidental subjectivity from which it emerges." See Iwamura, "The Oriental Monk in American Popular Culture," 23-43.
113. Hitoshi Tsufura, "Buddhist Seminar," Berkeley Bussei (1953), 28, 36, box 3, Buddhist Churches of America Collection;
114. Jane Michiko Imamura, Kaikyo: Opening the Dharma: Memoirs of a Buddhist Priest's Wife in America (Honolulu, 1998), 33-34, 48-49.
115. Jane Imamura has provided a list of BCA study group presenters in 1955 that included a number of American Academy of Asian Studies (AAAS) students and instructors, as well as graduate students and professors from surrounding Bay Area universities. See Imamura, Kaikyo, 40.
116. Two notable examples of AAAS participation in BCA Young Buddhist Conferences include G. P. Malalasekera, "Transcript of Memorial Service Sermon," 11th Annual Western Young Buddhist League Conference in TriRatna: Buddha, Buddhism, Buddhist, 7 (1953), 1-7,
117. Buddhist Study Center Archives, Honolulu (hereafter Buddhist Study Center), and Alan Watts, "A Program for Buddhism in America," Berkeley Bussei (1952), 21, Buddhist Churches of America Collection.
118. Hitoshi Tsufura, "Buddhist Seminar," Berkeley Bussei (1953), 28,
119. Buddhist Churches of America Collection; A. B., "Notes on the Buddhist Seminar," Tri-Ratna: Buddha, Buddhism, Buddhist, 7 (Sept.-Oct. 1953), 15, Buddhist Study Center.
120. "Buddhist Study Group," Berkeley Bussei (1950), 7, box 3, Buddhist Churches of America Collection; Tsufura, "Buddhist Seminar," 28
121. Gary Snyder, "Introduction," in Imamura, Kaikyo, iii; interview with Gary Snyder by the author, Feb. 7, 2002, Nevada City, Calif., in author's possession; Alfred Bloom, "The Unfolding of the Lotus: A Survey of Recent Developments in Shin Buddhism in the West," Buddhist-Christian Studies, 10 (1990), 158.
122. Vanita Meyer, "New Experience: Notes on the Buddhist Seminar," Tri-Ratna: Buddha, Buddhism, Buddhist, 6 (Sept.-Oct., 1953), 15, Buddhist Study Center;
123. Isao Fujimoto, interview by the author, Oct. 16, 2002, Davis, Calif., in author's possession; Snyder, "Introduction," in Imamura, Kaikyo, iii; Imamura, Kaikyo, 39.
124. For example, the 1955 Berkeley Bussei was primarily produced by and included contributions from BCA Study Group members, including Lily Frjioka, Kimi Hisatsune, Jane Imamura, Reverend Kanmo Imamura, Robert Jackson, Hiroshi Kashiwagi, Vanita Meyer, Snyder, Tokwan Tacla, Tsufura, Taitetsu Unno, Watts, and Alex Wayman. Berkeley Bussei (1955), box 3, Buddhist Churches of America Collection. Kashiwagi reflected on the goals of the American Buddhist in 1964 after having served as editor for the previous seven years. See Kashiwagi, "Progress Report," American Buddhist, 8 (Jan. 1964), 2.
125. See, for example, 1953, 1957, and 1958 editions of the Berkeley Bussei. The 1960 edition of the Berkeley Bussei includes a reprint of Jack Kerouac's recounting of his meeting with D. T. Suzuki; Berkeley Bussei (1953-1960), box 3, Buddhist Churches of America Collection;
126. Hiroshi Kashiwagi, "1957 Berkeley Bussei exceeds previous editions," American Buddhist, 1 (Aug. 1, 1957), 4.
127. Fields, How the Swans Came to the Lake, 215.
128. Wayman to Snyder, Oct. 26, 1956, folder 3, box 197, Series II, Gary Snyder Papers, Department of Special Collections, University of California, Davis (hereafter Snyder Papers)
129. Cal Steinmetz, "'Hearts and Minds will Expand': A Letter from Oregon," American Buddhist, 4 (Oct. 1960), 2.
130. Jane Imamura to Snyder, Feb. 20, 1957, folder 46, box 85, Series II, Snyder Papers;
131. Kerouac to Snyder, May 24, 1957, folder 38, box 94, in ibid.
132. see introductions by Jane Imamura and Snyder in Imamura, Kaikyo.
133. Amstutz, Interpreting Amida, 8-10.
134. See, for example, Robertjackson, "Zen and Shin," American Buddhist 2 (June 15, 1958), 5.
135. Despite his continued preference for Zen and Beat-styled Buddhism, Jackson began to develop a more comprehensive understanding of faith by contrasting Shin Buddhism and Christianity. See Robert P. Jackson, "Buddhism and Christianity," American Buddhist, 5 (Aug. 1961), 2.
136. Calvin C. Steinmetz, "What's in a Name: The Question of Temple or Church," American Buddhist, 6 (June 1962), 2, 4.
137. Alan Watts, "A Program for Buddhism in America," Berkeley Bussei (1952), 21.
138. Ibid.
139. Rev. Jack Austin, "Letters from Readers," American Buddhist, 1 (Oct. 1, 1957), 4.
140. Robert P. Jackson, "On Buddhist Education," in ibid., 2 (July 15, 1958), 1.
141. David Iwamoto, "The Shin Sect Doctrine in America," Tri-Ratna: Buddha, Buddhism, Buddhist, 6 (Sept.-Oct. 1952), 7-8, Buddhist Study Center.
142. John Doami, "The Social Utility of the Church," American Buddhist 2 (Oct. 1958), 6.
143. Robert P. Jackson, "The Relationship of Shin Shu and General Buddhism," in ibid., 1 (Sept. 1957), 1, 5.