In the twilight zone between black and white: Japanese American resettlement and community in Chicago, 1942-1945

Journal of American History

Volumn 86, Issue 4, 2000, Pages 1655-1687

  Brooks, Charlotte ^a  

^a NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 33749382082     PISSN: 00218723     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/2567582     Document Type: Review

References (114)

1. "Sailors, Japs in Riot Here," Chicago Herald-American, July 14, 1943, "Clippings on Relocation" folder, box 8, Japanese-American Relocation Collection (Brethren Historical Library and Archives, Elgin, Ill.);
2. Togo Tanaka, "Adjustment Problems of Chicago Resettlers," Feb. 18, 1944, p. 6, folder T.185, Japanese American Evacuation and Resettlement Records (Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley);
3. U.S. Department of the Interior, People in Motion: The Postwar Adjustment of the Evacuated Japanese Americans (Washington, 1946), 143-45.
4. See, for example, CH-13 interview by Charles Kikuchi, Oct. 14, 1943, transcript, p. 94, folder T1.942, Japanese American Evacuation and Resettlement Records; CH-15 interview by Kikuchi, Oct. 13, 1943, transcript, pp. 39-40, folder T1.944, ibid.; CH-14 interview by Kikuchi, Oct. 11, 1943, transcript, p. 14, folder T1.943, ibid.; CH-25 interview by Kikuchi, Dec. 27, 1943, transcript, p. 75, folder T1.954, ibid. Charles Kikuchi, Togo Tanaka, and Tamotsu Shibutani, three Nisei working with the University of California's Japanese American Evacuation and Resettlement Study, conducted "life history" interviews with Chicago resettlers while living in the city themselves during World War II. Kikuchi also spoke with some of his subjects two or three years later and included these unpaginated entries (here designated "follow-up entries") in his interview notes. Altogether, Kikuchi, Tanaka, and Shibutani interviewed 93 people. To protect individuals' privacy, the interviewers assigned a number to each interviewee: "CH-13" refers to Chicago subject number 13.
5. Ralph Smeltzer, "Present Status of the Community Integration Program in Chicago," July 9, 1943, transcript, p. 1, item B6, vol. III, Manzanar Collection (Charles Deering McCormick Library of Special Collections, Northwestern University, Evanston, Ill.).
6. I follow the usage of my primary sources, which do not generally designate Chicago's Mexican and Mexican American population as "white." Michael Omi and Howard Winant, Racial Formation in the United States (New York, 1994), 59;
7. St. Clair Drake and Horace R. Cayton, Black Metropolis: A Study of Negro Life in a Northern City (New York, 1945), 9.
8. borrow the terms "inbetween" and "inbetweenness" from James R. Barrett and David Roediger, "Inbetween Peoples: Race, Nationality, and the 'New Immigrant' Working Class," Journal of American Ethnic History, 16 (Spring 1997), 3-4.
9. See, for instance, Barrett and Roediger, "Inbetween Peoples," passim; Robert Orsi, "The Religious Boundaries of an Inbetween People: Street Feste and the Problem of the Dark-Skinned Other in Italian Harlem, 1920-1990," American Quarterly, 44 (Sept. 1992), 314;
10. Lizabeth Cohen, Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919-1939 (Cambridge, Eng., 1990), 365.
11. borrow the term "old-stock Americans" from John Higham, Strangers in the Land: Patterns of American Nativism, 1860-1925 (New Brunswick, 1994), passim.
12. Barbara M. Posadas, "Crossed Boundaries in Interracial Chicago: Pilipino American Families since 1925," in Unequal Sisters: A Multi-Cultural Reader in U.S. Women's History, ed. Vicki L. Ruiz and Ellen Carol DuBois (London, 1994), 319;
13. Thomas Lee Philpott, The Slum and the Ghetto: Immigrants, Blacks, and Reformers in Chicago, 1880-1930 (Belmont, 1991), 146.
14. When I use such terms as "internment" or "relocation," I am following the conventions of later scholars who so labeled the forced imprisonment of Japanese Americans in concentration camps. David J. O'Brien and Stephen S. Fugita, The Japanese American Experience (Bloomington, 1991), 75;
15. Harry Kirano, Japanese Americans: The Evolution of a Subculture (Englewood Cliffs, 1969), 38.
16. For other analyses of the western racial hierarchy, see Tomas Almaguer, Racial Fault Lines: The Historical Origins of White Supremacy in California (Berkeley, 1994);
17. and Karen Isaksen Leonard, Making Ethnic Choices: California's Punjabi Mexican Americans (Philadelphia, 1992).
18. Sucheng Chan, Asian Americans: An Interpretive History (New York, 1991), 46;
19. O'Brien and Fugita, Japanese American Experience, 22.
20. Leonard Broom and John I. Kitsuse, The Managed Casualty: The Japanese-American Family in World War II (Berkeley, 1956), 5;
21. O'Brien and Fugita, Japanese American Experience, 33.
22. Daisuke Kitagawa, Issei and Nisei: The Internment Years (New York, 1967), 15;
23. Carey McWilliams, Prejudice - Japanese Americans: Symbols of Racial Intolerance (Boston, 1945), 102.
24. John Modell, The Economics and Politics of Racial Accommodation: The Japanese of Los Angeles, 1900-1942 (Urbana, 1977), 85;
25. Tamotsu Shibutani, "The First Year of the Resettlement of Nisei in the Chicago Area: A Preliminary Classification of Materials and a Statement of Tentative Plans for Further Research," March 1, 1944, p. 151, folder T1.842, Japanese American Evacuation and Resettlement Records.
26. Kitano, Japanese Americans, 57;
27. Modell, Economics and Politics of Racial Accommodation, 131.
28. Arthur A. Hansen, ed., Japanese-American World War II Evacuation Oral History Project (5 vols., Westport, 1991), I, 63.
29. Frank Chumann, The Bamboo People: The Law and Japanese Americans (Del Mar, 1976), 143-46;
30. Dorothy Swaine Thomas, Japanese American Evacuation and Resettlement (3 vols., Berkeley, 1946-1954), II, 88-89.
31. Michi Nishiura Weglyn, Years of Infamy: The Untold Story of America's Concentration Camps (Seattle, 1996), 93;
32. Dillon Myer, Uprooted Americans: The Japanese Americans and the War Relocation Authority during World War II (Tucson, 1971), 130;
33. Edward H. Spicer et al., Impounded People: Japanese Americans in the Relocation Centers (Tucson, 1969), 127.
34. Thomas Teraji interview by Charlotte Brooks, Jan. 20, 1997, audiotape (in Charlotte Brooks's possession), side 1, tape 1; Department of the Interior, People in Motion, 5;
35. Teraji interview, side 1, tape 1; Chiye Tomihiro interview by Brooks, Jan. 23, 1997, audiotape (in Brooks's possession), side 2, tape 1; Thomas, Japanese American Evacuation and Resettlement, II, 125. I treat Thomas's book as a primary source, as it contains fifteen of the Japanese American Evacuation and Resettlement Study interviews.
36. Shotero Frank Miyamoto, "Interim Report of Resettler Adjustments in Chicago," March 1, 1944, p. 59, folder T1.838, Japanese American Evacuation and Resettlement Records.
37. Mary Smeltzer to Rev. Hideo Hashimoto and Mr. McCormick, March 23, 1943, "Correspondence Connected with Setting up Bethany Relocation Hostel" folder, box 1, Japanese-American Relocation Collection; Ralph Smeltzer, "Original Hostel Plan, December 1942, Manzanar: Japanese Resettlement Hostel," Dec. 1942, "Early Historical Correspondence" folder, ibid.
38. Walter A. Heath, "Why Relocate?," in Why Relocate? (Manzanar, 1943), "WRA History, Literature, Bibliog" folder, box 5, Japanese-American Relocation Collection. Emphasis added. For identifications of Nisei as Japanese, see, for instance, Ralph Smeltzer, "Origin and History of the Chicago United Ministry to Resettlers," April 3, 1944, "Chicago Church Federation and United Ministry to Resettlers" folder, box 3, Japanese-American Relocation Collection.
39. Weglyn, Years of Infamy, 41-42;
40. Hosokawa, Nisei, 159.
41. Setsuko M. Nishi, talk at Japanese American Service Committee, Chicago, Ill., March 2, 1997, audiotape (in Brooks's possession), side 1, tape 1.
42. Homer L. Morris, "Memo on WRA Conference on Resettlement," Jan. 19, 1943, "Early Historical Correspondence" folder, box 1, Japanese-American Relocation Collection; Thomas Temple to Ralph and Mary Smeltzer, Jan. 21, 1943, "Correspondence Connected with Setting up Bethany Relocation Hostel" folder, ibid.; Temple to Ralph Smeltzer, Feb. 5, 1943, ibid.; CH-3 interview by Kikuchi, July 16, 1943, transcript, p. 73, folder T1.932, Japanese American Evacuation and Resettlement Records; Yuriko T. to Ralph and Mary Smeltzer, Nov. 2, 1943, "General Correspondence March 7, 1943 to Sept. 1, 1944" folder, box 2, Japanese-American Relocation Collection. See also Thomas, Japanese American Evacuation and Resettlement, II, 262.
43. Kiyo Yoshimura interview by Brooks, Dec. 12, 1996, audiotape (in Brooks's possession), side 2, tape 1. See also Evelyn Nakano Glenn, Issei, Nisei, War Bride: Three Generations of Japanese-American Women in Domestic Service (Philadelphia, 1986), 167-68, 177-79;
44. Drake and Cayron, Black Metropolis, 242-43; Nishi, talk, side 1, tape 1; CH-42 interview by Kikuchi, July 17, 1944, transcript, pp. 3-4, folder T1.971, Japanese American Evacuation and Resettlement Records. See also CH-3 interview, p. 74.
45. Eugene Shigemi Uyeki, "Process and Patterns of Nisei Adjustment to Chicago" (Ph.D. diss., University of Chicago, 1953), 147 (case 20), 117 (case 38). I treat portions of Uyeki's thesis as a primary source, since it quotes extensively from Nisei he interviewed. I have included (where applicable) the case number Uyeki used to designate each person.
46. See, for example, CH-13 interview, p. 91; Thomas, Japanese American Evacuation and Resettlement, II, 318; CH-60 interview by Kikuchi, Dec. 7, 1944, transcript, pp. 22-23, folder T1.989, Japanese American Evacuation and Resettlement Records.
47. For increased encouragement of resettlement, see, for example, Miya Kikuchi to Temple, March 3, 1943, "Temple's Correspondence" folder, box 2, Japanese-American Relocation Collection. Flyer, Aug. 20, 1943, "Hostel Mimeographed and Printed Material" folder, box 4, ibid.
48. Elmer Shirrell, "Memo," Sept. 1943, "Chicago W.R.A." folder, box 5, ibid. See CH-23 interview by Kikuchi, Nov. 22, 1943, transcript, p. 74, folder T1.952, Japanese American Evacuation and Resettlement Records; CH-25 interview, 74; CH-42 interview, 54.
49. Thomas H. Wright, Human Relations in Chicago: Report of the Mayor's Commission on Human Relations for 1946 (Chicago, 1946), 81.
50. For an example of an employer hinting at Nisei layoffs after the war, see Thomas, Japanese American Evacuation and Resettlement, II, 448. CH-48 interview by Kikuchi, Aug. 15, 1945, transcript, follow-up entry, folder T1.977, Japanese American Evacuation and Resettlement Records.
51. "Summary Report: Curtiss Candy Company," n.d., folder T1.8481, Japanese American Evacuation and Resettlement Records; CH-57 interview by Kikuchi, Nov. 2, 1944, transcript, p. 169, folder T1.986, ibid.
52. Dave Masato Okada, "A Study of Male Nisei Workers in Two Chicago Industrial Plants under Wartime Conditions" (M.A. thesis, University of Chicago, 1947), 100. I treat portions of Okada's thesis as a primary source, since it quotes extensively from Nisei he interviewed. I have included (where applicable) the letter and number Okada used to designate each subject. "Summary Report: Transportation Maintenance Corporation," n.d., folder T1.8481, Japanese American Evacuation and Resettlement Records; "Summary Report: Bloomfield Manufacturing," n.d., ibid.; CH-58 interview by Kikuchi, Nov. 10, 1944, transcript, p. 105, folder T1.987, ibid.
53. CH-215 interview by Togo Tanaka, Aug. 17, 1943, transcript, p. 1, folder T1.9946, Japanese American Evacuation and Resettlement Records; Thomas, Japanese American Evacuation and Resettlement, II, 291.
54. CH-56 interview by Kikuchi, Nov. 1, 1945, transcript, p. 64, folder T1.985, Japanese American Evacuation and Resettlement Records; CH-17 interview by Kikuchi, Oct. 21, 1943, transcript, p. 81, folder T1.946, ibid.
55. "Summary Report: Hotel Sherman," n.d., folder T1.8481, ibid.; CH-46 interview by Kikuchi, Aug. 3, 1944, transcript, p. 40, folder T1.975, ibid.
56. CH-202 interview by Tanaka, June 17, 1943, transcript, pp. 2-3, folder T1.9941, ibid.; CH-13 interview, p. 98; CH-15 interview, p. 43; Thomas, Japanese American Evacuation and Resettlement, II, 258.
57. Okada, "Study of Male Nisei Workers in Two Chicago Industrial Plants," 98; CH-23 interview, p. 78; Frank Miyamoto Journal, Feb. 24, 1944, folder T1.8405, Japanese American Evacuation and Resettlement Records.
58. CH-62 interview by Kikuchi, May 18, 1944, transcript, p. 87, 90, folder 1.991, Japanese American Evacuation and Resettlement Records; CH-56 interview, p. 62.
59. Okada, "Study of Male Nisei Workers in Two Chicago Industrial Plants," 92 (B-21); CH-102 interview by Tamotsu Shibutani, Oct. 14, 1943, transcript, unpaginated, folder 1.9932, Japanese American Evacuation and Resettlement Records; CH-107 interview by Shibutani, Oct. 21, 1943, transcript, p. 27, folder T1.9936, ibid.
60. Okada, "Study of Male Nisei Workers in Two Chicago Industrial Plants," 90 (A-7), 98.
61. Okada, "Study of Male Nisei Workers in Two Chicago Industrial Plants," 50, 101; CH-211 interview by Tanaka, Aug. 3, 1943, transcript, pp. 1-2, folder T1.9945, Japanese American Evacuation and Resettlement Records; "Summary Report: Sovereign Manufacturing," n.d., folder T1.8481, ibid.
62. Joe W. Trotter and Earl Lewis, African Americans in the Industrial Age: A Documentary History, 1915-1945 (Boston, 1996), 249, 257-58; Uyeki, "Process and Patterns of Nisei Adjustment to Chicago," 116 (case 13).
63. Uyeki, "Process and Patterns of Nisei Adjustment to Chicago," 117-18 (cases 8 and 11); "Summary Report: Sovereign Manufacturing"; Miyamoto Journal, Feb. 24, 1944.
64. Thomas, Japanese American Evacuation and Resettlement, II, 288;
65. Okada, "Study of Male Nisei Workers in Two Chicago Industrial Plants," 50, 99 (A-10); CH-203 interview by Tanaka, June 17, 1943, transcript, p. 5, folder T1.9941, Japanese American Evacuation and Resettlement Records; Uyeki, "Process and Patterns of Nisei Adjustment to Chicago," 112 (case 6).
66. Okada, "Study of Male Nisei Workers in Two Chicago Industrial Plants," 98;
67. Thomas, Japanese American Evacuation and Resettlement, II, 294; Mr. and Mrs. Sus Takei interview by Tamotsu Shibutani or Louise Suski, June 14, 1944, transcript, folder T1.8481, Japanese American Evacuation and Resettlement Records; Dick Jones interview by G. R. Wilson, n.d., folder 5, box 35, Illinois Writers' Project collection (Carter Woodson Regional Library, Chicago, Ill.).
68. Thomas, Japanese American Evacuation and Resettlement, II, 294; Okada, "Study of Male Nisei Workers in Two Chicago Industrial Plants," 49; CH-46 interview, p. 59 (this interviewee was very friendly toward blacks but virulently anti-Semitic); Miyamoto Journal, Feb. 28, 1944.
69. Okada, "Study of Male Nisei Workers in Two Chicago Industrial Plants," 81 (B-20);
70. Thomas, Japanese American Evacuation and Resettlement, II, 64.
71. On prewar Chinese American life in Chicago, see Paul C. P. Siu, The Chinese Laundryman: A Study of Social Isolation, ed. John Kuo Wei Tchen (New York, 1987).
72. Posadas, "Crossed Boundaries in Interracial Chicago," 320; Philpott, Slum and the Ghetto, 146.
73. J. Bougere, "Notes on 'Report of the Illinois State Commission on the Condition of the Urban Colored Population,'" May 29, 1941, folder 21, box 37, Illinois Writers' Project collection; handwritten notes of an unnamed social worker describing discussions with community members, Feb. 1945, Jan.-Nov. 1945 folder, box 30, Chicago Commons collection (Chicago Historical Society, Chicago, Ill.); "Talk with Donalek," n.d., ibid.; handwritten notes of unnamed social worker's conversation with Mrs. Fasano, Oct. 1, 1943, ibid.; "Initial Group Work with Negro Summary," Autumn 1945, ibid.; Arnold R. Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago, 1940-1960 (New York, 1983), 45-47.
74. "Talk with Donalek"; notes on unnamed social workers conversation with John Yancey, Sept. 1943, Jan.-Nov. 1945 folder, box 30, Chicago Commons collection; notes on unnamed social worker's conversation with Rev. A. Lewis Williams, March 19, 1944, ibid.
75. Wright, Human Relations in Chicago, 65.
76. Thomas, Japanese American Evacuation and Resettlement, II, 356; CH-107 interview, p. 1; Tanaka, "Adjustment Problems of Chicago Resettlers," 37.
77. CH-40 interview by Kikuchi, June 11, 1945, transcript, follow-up entry, folder T1.969, Japanese American Evacuation and Resettlement Records; Uyeki, "Process and Patterns of Nisei Adjustment to Chicago," 120 (cases 34 and 52).
78. CH-4 interview by Kikuchi, April 20, 1945, transcript, follow-up entry, folder T1.933, Japanese American Evacuation and Resettlement Records; CH-10 interview by Kikuchi, Sept. 3, 1943, transcript, p. 59, folder T1.939, ibid.; CH-40 interview, June 11, 1945, follow-up entry.
79. CH-103 interview by Shibutani, June 7, 1943, transcript, p. 3, folder T1.9932, Japanese American Evacuation and Resettlement Records; CH-110 interview by Shibutani, Sept. 29, 1943, transcript, unpaginated, folder T1.9938, ibid.; CH-58 interview, pp. 89-90; handwritten notes of unknown social worker on housing covenants, 1945, Jan.-Nov. 1945 folder, box 30, Chicago Commons collection.
80. CH-6 interview by Kikuchi, Aug. 10, 1943, transcript, p. 88, folder T1.935, Japanese American Evacuation and Resettlement Records; CH-40 interview, June 11, 1945, follow-up entry; CH-42 interview, June 27, 1945, follow-up entry.
81. "Bulletin to 'Y' Workers," n.d., "Chicago Church Federation and United Ministry to Resettlers" folder, box 3, Japanese-American Relocation Collection; CH-50 interview by Kikuchi, Sept. 18, 1944, transcript, p. 111, folder T1.979, Japanese American Evacuation and Resettlement Records; CH-51 interview by Kikuchi, Sept. 25, 1944, transcript, p. 83, folder T1.98, ibid.
82. Tanaka, "Adjustment Problems of Chicago Resettlers," 61; Ralph Smeltzer to Harold E. Bremer (secretary, National Conference of Methodist Youth Fellowship), Feb. 4, 1944, "Other Hostels Correspondence and Information" folder, box 2, Japanese-American Relocation Collection; Ernest Lefever (national youth director, Church of the Brethren) to Nisei party attendees, Jan. 23, 1943, "Correspondence Connected with Setting up Bethany Relocation Hostel" folder, box 1, ibid.
83. U.S. Department of the Interior, The Relocation Program (Washington, c. 1946), 18;
84. Kitano, Japanese Americans, 38-39;
85. Spicer et al., Impounded People, 87-88;
86. U.S. Department of the Interior, WRA, a Story of Human Conservation (Washington, 1946), 135.
87. Yoshimura interview, side 1, tape 1.
88. Ralph Smeltzer to Mary Smeltzer, March 24, 1943, "Correspondence Connected with Setting up Bethany Relocation Hostel" folder, box 1, Japanese-American Relocation Collection; Shibutani, "First Year of the Resettlement of Nisei," 34; Church Federation of Greater Chicago, "Minutes," June 21, 1945, folder 1, box 56, Church Federation of Greater Chicago collection (Chicago Historical Society); Harry Mayeda and John W. Harris, "Memorandum of Conversation," June 23, 1945, folder 4, box 145, Chicago Social Welfare Council collection, ibid.
89. Setsuko Matsunaga Nishi, "Japanese-American Achievement in Chicago: A Cultural Response to Degradation" (Ph.D. diss., University of Chicago, 1961), 148;
90. CH-14 interview, p. 22; Thomas, Japanese American Evacuation and Resettlement, II, 290;
91. Shibutani, "First Year of the Resettlement of Nisei," 168.
92. CH-58 interview, p. 88; ibid., July 5, 1945, follow-up entry, pp. 139-40; CH-17 interview, pp. 94-95.
93. William Moore interview by Merlin Bowen, Feb. 9, 1937, folder 7, box 35, Illinois Writers' Project collection; Drake and Cayton, Black Metropolis, 555; notes on Nursery Mothers discussion, Oct. 4, 1944, Jan.-Nov. 1945 folder, box 30, Chicago Commons collection.
94. Drake and Cayton, Black Metropolis, 106; Minutes of Committee on Minorities, June 25, 1943, folder 2, box 145, Chicago Social Welfare Council collection;
95. Siu, Chinese Laundryman, ed. Tchen, 270.
96. Uyeki, "Process and Patterns of Nisei Adjustment to Chicago," 86 (case 16); Ernie Takahashi, "Free Association: Class Distinction," March 5, 1944, transcript, folder T1.8453, Japanese American Evacuation and Resettlement Records; Miyamoto Journal, Feb. 28, 1944.
97. CH-46 interview, p. 49; CH-13 interview, p. 30; Tanaka, "Adjustment Problems of Chicago Resettlers," 70; Joe Takahashi, "Free Association," March 5, 1944, transcript, folder T1.8453, Japanese American Evacuation and Resettlement Records.
98. Thomas, Japanese American Evacuation and Resettlement, II, 504; CH-105 interview by Shibutani, Feb. 4, 1944, transcript, p. 34, folder T1.9934, Japanese American Evacuation and Resettlement Records; CH-4 interview, April 20, 1945, follow-up entry; CH-6 interview, p. 85.
99. CH-105 interview, p. 40; Uyeki, "Process and Patterns of Nisei Adjustment to Chicago," 118 (case 1).
100. CH-42 interview, p. 65; CH-46 interview, p. 46; Thomas, Japanese American Evacuation and Resettlement, II, 339;
101. Frank Miyamoto, "Notes on Conversation with Shirrell," June 25, 1943, pp. 12-13, folder T1.8405, Japanese American Evacuation and Resettlement Records; Miyamoto Journal, March 27, 1944.
102. CH-104 interview by Shibutani, Oct. 27, 1943, p. 9, transcript, folder T1.9933, Japanese American Evacuation and Resettlement Records; CH-56 interview, p. 73.
103. "Bulletin to 'Y' Workers." Emphasis added. Ralph Smeltzer, "Questions Concerning the Newly Proposed Indifinite Leave Program of the W.R.A.," May 8, 1943, "Chicago W.R.A." folder, box 5, Japanese-American Relocation Collection; "Travel Tips for Resettlers," n.d., "Hostel Mimeographed and Printed Material" folder, box 4, ibid.; William Huso (relocation planning officer, Gila River Project), flyer, ibid.
104. Huso, flyer; O'Brien and Fugita, Japanese American Experience, 85.
105. CH-17 interview, Nov. 22, 1943, follow-up entry.
106. CH-45 interview by Kikuchi, July 28, 1944, transcript, p. 16, folder T1.974, Japanese American Evacuation and Resettlement Records; John Costello, Love, Sex and War: Changing Values, 1939-45 (London, 1985), 33;
107. CH-48 interview, p. 28; Special Committee Called to Discuss Problems in the Placement of Japanese Children Through the War Relocation Authority, "Minutes," Nov. 6, 1944, p. 2, folder 4, box 145, Chicago Social Welfare Council collection; Togo Tanaka, Corky Kawasaki, Joe Koide, and Brother Theophane Walsh, "Chicago Resettlement - 1947: A Report," Dec. 18, 1946, p. 2, folder 1, box 103, ibid.
108. See, for example, M. Sakai to Ralph Smeltzer, May 9, 1943, "Evacuee Correspondence March 7, 1942 to Sept. 1, 1944" folder, box 2, Japanese-American Relocation Collection; Ralph Smeltzer to Sakai, May 18, 1943, ibid.
109. Setsuko Matsunaga Nishi, "Report on the Inquiry into the Relation of Agencies in the Division of Education and Recreation to Nisei in Chicago," folder 1, box 103, Chicago Social Welfare Council collection; Chicago Resettlers' Committee, "Progress Report - 1947," p. 3, folder 14, Japanese-American Service Committee/ Chicago Resettlers' Committee collection (University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago); Teraji interview, side 1, tape 2.
110. Broom and Kitsuse, Managed Casualty, 46-47;
111. Shibutani, "First Year of the Resettlement of Nisei," 213-14.
112. Chicago Resettlers' Committee Community Relations Committee, "Notes," Oct. 26, 1951, transcript, Chicago Resettlers Committee folder, Chicago Social Welfare Council collection; "Onward House, March 9, 1948: discussion between Charles Moon, director, and Robert Neal of Council of Social Agencies," March 9, 1948, transcript, p. 4, folder 6, box 387, ibid.; advisory committee list for Hyde Park Neighborhood Club, 1957, Hyde Park Neighborhood Club, 1937-1961 folder, box 332, ibid.; George Morimitsu, "They're Neighborly," Scene, 2 (April 1950), 38-40.
113. Uyeki, "Process and Patterns of Nisei Adjustment to Chicago," 78 (case 28).
114. Peggy Terry interview by Studs Terkel, The Good War: An Oral History of World War Two (New York, 1985), 107.