Ethnicity and mental health: Conceptualization, definition and operationalization of ethnicity from a Canadian context

Chronic Diseases in Canada

Volumn 28, Issue 4, 2008, Pages 128-147

  Clarke, Diana E ^a,b,c   Colantonio, A ^b,c   Rhodes, A E ^b,d,e   Escobar, M ^b  

^a JOHNS HOPKINS BLOOMBERG SCHOOL OF PUBLIC HEALTH   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO   (Canada)

^c TORONTO REHABILITATION INSTITUTE   (Canada)

^d ST MICHAEL'S HOSPITAL   (Canada)

^e INSTITUTE FOR CLINICAL EVALUATIVE SCIENCES   (Canada)

Author keywords

Culture; Ethnic origin; Ethnicity; Mental health; Race

Indexed keywords

CANADA; CULTURAL FACTOR; ETHNICITY; MEDICAL DECISION MAKING; MEDICAL LITERATURE; MEDICAL RESEARCH; MEDICAL SOCIETY; MENTAL HEALTH CARE; OUTCOME ASSESSMENT; REVIEW;

CANADA; CONTINENTAL POPULATION GROUPS; CULTURAL DIVERSITY; CULTURE; EMIGRANTS AND IMMIGRANTS; ETHNIC GROUPS; HUMANS; MENTAL HEALTH; TERMINOLOGY AS TOPIC;

EID: 48349132036     PISSN: 02288699     EISSN: 14818523     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (110)

1. Statistics Canada. 2001 Census Visible Minority and Population Group User Guide. URL: http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census01/Products/Reference/ tech_rep/vismin.cfm.
2. Wu Z, Noh S, Kaspar V, Schimmele CM. Race, Ethnicity, and Depression in Canadian Society. J Health Social Behav. 2003;44:426-441.
3. Esses VM, Gardner RC. Multiculturalism in Canada: Context and Current Status. Canadian Journal of Behavioral Science. 1996;28:145-152.
4. Li PS. Social Inclusion of Visible Minorities and Newcomers: The Articulation of "Race" and "Racial" Difference in Canadian Society. Prepared for 2003 Social Inclusion Conference. What Do We Know and Where Do We Go: Building a Social Inclusion Research Agenda. Ottawa, March 27-28, 2003. URL: http://www.ccsd.ca/events/inclusion/papers/peter_li.pdf.
5. Ali J. Mental Health of Canada's Immigrants. Supplement of Health Reports. 2002;13:1-11.
6. Mahtani M. Interrogating the hyphennation: Canadian multicultural policy and "mixed race" identities. In Hier SP and Bolaria BS, eds. Identity and Belonging: Rethinking race and ethnicity in Canadian society. Toronto, Canada: Canadian Scholars' Press Inc, 2006;Chapter 2:31-42.
7. Porter J. The Vertical Mosaic: An Analysis of Social Class and Power in Canada. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1965:60-103.
8. Lian JZ, Matthews DR. Does the Vertical Mosaic Still Exist? Ethnicity and Income in Canada, 1991. Can Rev Sociol Anthropol. 1998;35:461.
9. Kirmayer LJ, Minas H. The future of cultural psychiatry: An international perspective. Can J Psychiatry. 2000;45:438-446.
10. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Suicide among Black youths - United States, 1980-1995. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 1998;47:106-193.
11. Shiang J. Does culture make a difference? Racial/ethnic patterns of completed suicide in San Francisco, CA 1987-1996 and clinical implications. Suicide Life Threat Behav. 1998,28:338-354.
12. 1106-121.
13. Oquendo MA, Ellis SP, Greenwald S, Malone KM, Weissman MM, Mann JJ. Ethnic and sex differences in suicide rates relative to major depression in the United States. Am J Psychiatry. 2001;158:1652-1658.
14. Price JH, Dake JA, Kuchareswki R. Assets as predictors of suicide attempts in African American inner-city youths. Am J Health Behav. 2001;25:367-375.
15. O'Donnell L, O'Donnell C, Merrit Wardlaw D, Stueve A. Risk and resiliency factors influencing suicidality among African American and Latino youth. Am J Community Psychol. 2004;33:37-49.
16. Neeleman J, Mak V, Wessely S. Suicide by age, ethnic group, coroners' verdicts and country of birth: A three year survey in Inner London. Br J Psychiatry. 1997;171:463-467.
17. Neeleman J, Wessely S. Ethnic minority suicide: A small area geographical study in South London. Psychol Med. 1999;29:429-436.
18. Bhugra D, Desai M, Baldwin D. Attempted suicide in west London: Rates across ethnic communities. Psychol Med, 1999;29:1125-1130.
19. McKenzie K, van Os J, Samele C, van Horn E, Tattan T, Murrau R. Suicide and attempted suicide among people of Caribbean origin with psychosis living in the UK. Br J Psychiatry. 2003;183:40-44.
20. Isajiw WW. Definitions of Ethnicity. Ethnicity. 1974;1:111-124.
21. Bell, BD. The Performance of Immigrants in the United Kingdom: Evidence from the GHS. The Economic Journal. 1997;107:333-344.
22. Green AG, Green DA. The Economic Goals of Canada's Immigration Policy, Past and Present. Departmet of Economics, University of British Columbia. 1996.
23. Li PS. Race and ethnicity. In Li PS (Ed) Race and Ethnic Relations in Canada, Second Edition. Oxford University Press, Canada. 1999;3-20.
24. Beaujot R. Immigration and Canadian Demographics: State of the Research. Citizenship and Immigration Canada. 1998. URL: http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/ research/papers/demographics.html
25. Citizenship and Immigration Canada. Citizenship and Immigration Statistics, 1966-1996. 2004. URL: http://epe.lac-bac.gc.ca/100/202/301/ immigration_statisticsef/index.html
26. Belanger A, Malenfant EC. Population projections of visible minority groups, Canada, provinces and regions 2001-2017. Ottawa: Statistics Canada, Demography Division. 2005. Cat. No. 91-541-XIE.
27. Aspinall PJ. Operationalising the collection of ethnicity data in studies of the sociology of health and illness. Sociol Health Illn. 2001;23:829-862.
28. Winker MA. Measuring Race and Ethnicity: Why and How? JAMA. 2004;292:1612-1614.
29. Murphy HBM. European cultural offshoots in the New World: Differences in their mental hospitalization patterns. Part II: German, Dutch, and Scandinavian influences. Archiv fur Psychiatrie und Nervenkrankheiten (Archives of Psychiatry and Neurological Sciences). 1980;228:161-174.
30. Liban CB, Smart RG. Drinking and drug use among Ontario Indian students. Drug Alcohol Depend. 1982;9:161-171.
31. Havens B, Chappell NL. Triple Jeopardy: Age, Sex, and Etnicity. Canadian Ethnic Studies. 1983;15:119-129.
32. Penning MJ. Multiple Jeopardy: Age, Sex, and Ethnic Variations. Canadian Ethnic Studies. 1983;15:81-105.
33. Tcheng-Laroche F, Prince R. Separated and divorced women compared with married controls: Selected life satisfaction, stress and health indices from a community survey. Soc Sci Med. 1983;17:95-105.
34. Tonkin RS. Suicide methods in British Columbian adolescents. J Adolesc Health Care. 1984;5:172-177.
35. Barnes GE, Currie RF, Segall A. Symptoms of Depression in a Canadian Urban Sample. Can J Psychiatry. 1988;33:386-392.
36. Sack WH, Beiser M, Phillips N, Baker-Brown G. Co-morbid symptoms of depression and conduct disorder in First Nations children: Some findings from the Flower of Two Soils Project. Cult Med Psychiatry. 1993;16:471-486.
37. Walters, V. Stress, Anxiety and Depression: Women's Accounts of their Health Problems. Soc Sci Med. 1993;36:393-402.
38. Beiser M, Cargo M, Woodbury MA. A comparison of psychiatric disorder in different cultures: Depressive typologies in Southeast Asian refugees and resident Canadians. Int J Methods Psychiatr Res. 1994;4:157-172.
39. Beiser M, Sack W, Manson SM, Redshirt R, Dion R. Mental and the academic performance of First Nations and majority-culture children. Am J Orthopsychiatry. 1998;68:455-467.
40. De Wit ML, Embree BG, De Wit DJ. Determinants of the risk and timing of alcohol and illicit drug use onset among natives and non-natives: Similarities and differences in family attachment. Soc Biol. 1999;46:100-121.
41. DeWit DJ, Beneteau B. Predictors of the prevalence of alcohol use and related problems among Francophones and Anglophones in the province of Ontario, Canada. Journal of the Study of Alcoholism. 1998;59:78-88.
42. DeWit DJ, Beneteau B. Predictors of the prevalence of tobacco use among Francophones and Anglophones in the province of Ontario. Health Educ Res. 1999;14:209-223.
43. Feldman L, Harvey B, Holowaty P, Shortt L. Alcohol use beliefs and behaviors among high school students. J Adolesc Health. 1999;24:48-58.
44. Beiser M, Dion R, Gotowiec A. The structure of attention-deficit and hyperactivity symptoms among Native and Non-Native elementary school children. J Abnorm Child Psychol. 2000;28:425-437.
45. Lavallee C, Bourgault C. The health of Cree, Inuit and Southern Quebec Women: Similarities and Differences. Can J Public Health. 2000; 91:212-216.
46. Beiser M, Hou F, Hyman I, Tousignant M. Poverty, Family Process, and the Mental Health of Immigrant Children in Canada. Am J Public Health. 2002;92:220-227.
47. Ma X. The First Ten Years in Canada: a Multi-Level Assessment of Behavioral and Emotional Problems of Immigrant Children. Canadian Public Policy. 2002;28:395-418.
48. Mata F. A Look at Life Satisfaction and Ethnicity in Canada. Canadian Ethnic Studies. 2002;34: 51-63.
49. Wu Z, Hart R. Social and health factors associated with support among elderly immigrants in Canada. Research on Aging. 2002;24:391-412.
50. Blackstock C, Trocme N, Bennett M. Child maltreatment investigations among Aboriginal and Non-Aboriginal families in Canada. Violence Against Women. 2004;10:901-906.
51. Cohen MM, MacLean H. Violence against Canadian Women. BMC Women's Health. 2004;4:S22.
52. Wang JW, El-Guebaly N. Sociodemographic Factors Associated with Comorbid Major Depressive Episodes and Alcohol Dependence in the General Population. Can J Psychiatry. 2004;49:37-44.
53. Rousseau C, Drapeau A. Premigration exposure to political violence among independent immigrants and its association with emotional distress. J Nerv Ment Dis. 2004;192:852-856.
54. Fry PS, Grover SC. Cognitive Appraisals of Life Stress and Depression in the Elderly: A Cross-Cultural Comparison of Asians and Caucasians. International Journal of Psychology. 1982;17:437-454.
55. Dyal, James A; Chan, Carolina. Stress and distress: A study of Hong Kong Chinese and Euro-Canadian students. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology. 1985;16(4):447-466.
56. Blandford AA, Chappell NL. Subjective well-being among Native and non-Native elderly persons: Do differences exist? Can J Aging. 1990;9(4):386-399.
57. Dion KL, Giordano C. Ethnicity and Sex as Correlates of Depression Symptoms in a Canadian University Sample. Int J Soc Psychiatry. 1990;36:30-41.
58. Bagley CR. Mental health and social adjustment of elderly Chinese immigrants in Canada. Canada's Mental Health. 1993;Fall:6-10.
59. Dion KL. Ethnolinguistic Correlates of Alexithymia: Toward a Cultural Perspective. J Psychosom Res. 1996;41:531-539.
60. Heine SJ, Lehman DR. Culture, Self-Discrepancies, and Self-Satisfaction. Pers Soc Psychol Bull. 1999;25:915-925.
61. Rousseau C, Mekki-Berrada A, Moreau S. Trauma and extended separation from family among Latin American and African refugees in Montreal. Psychiatry. 2001;64:40-59.
62. Howard LA, Ahluwalia JS, Lin SK, Sellers EM, Tyndale RF. CYP2E1*1D regulatory polymorphism: association with alcohol and nicotine dependence. Pharmacogenetics. 2003;13:321-328.
63. Tweed RG, White K, Lehman DR. Culture, stress and coping: Internally- and externally-targeted control strategies of European Canadians, East Asian Canadians and Japanese. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology. 2004;35:652-668.
64. Khanlou N. Influences on adolescent self-esteem in multicultural Canadian secondary schools. Public Health Nurs. 2004;21:404-411.
65. Aubert P, Daigle MS, Daigle JG. Cultural Traits and Immigration: Hostility and Suicidality in Chinese Canadian Students. Trancultural psychiatry. 2004;41: 514-532.
66. Bland RC, Orn H. Schizophrenia: Sociocultural Factors. Can J Psychiatry. 1981;26:186-188.
67. Seltzer A, Langford A. Forensic psychiatric assessments in the Northwest Territories. Can J Psychiatry. 1984;29:665-668.
68. Borzecki M, Wormith JS, Black WH. An examination of differences between native and non-native psychiatric offenders on the MMPI. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Sciences. 1988;20:287-301.
69. Chandrasena R, Beddage V, Fernando MLD. Suicide among immigrant psychiatric patients in Canada. Br J Psychiatry. 1991;159:707-709.
70. Norton GR, Rockman GE, Malan J, Cox BJ, Hewitt PL. Panic attacks, chemical abuse and suicidal ideation: A comparison of native and non-native Canadians. Alcoholism Treatment Quarterly. 1995;12:33-41.
71. Weekes JR, Morison SJ, Millson WA, Fettig DM. A comparison of Native, Métis, and Caucasian offender profiles on the MCMI. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science. 1995;27:187-198.
72. Pawliuk N, Grizenko N, Chan-Yip A, Gantous P, Mathew J, Nguyen D. Acculturation style and psychological functioning in children of immigrants. Am J Orthopsychiatry. 1996;66:111-121.
73. Zapf PA, Roesch R, Hart SD. An examination of the relationship of homelessness to mental disorder, criminal behaviour, and health care in a pretrial jail population. Can J Psychiatry. 1996;41:435-440.
74. Devins GM, Edworthy SM, Aramis Lupus State Models Research Group. Illness intrusiveness explains race-related quality-of-life differences among women with systemic lupus erythematosus. Lupus. 2000;9:534-541.
75. Hodelet N. Psychosis and offending in British Columbia: characteristics of a secure hospital population. Crim Behav Ment Health. 2001;11163-172.
76. Troper H, Weinfeld M. Ethnicity, Politics and Public Policy: Case studies in Canadian Diversity. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1999:3-25.
77. Williams DR. Race and Health: Basic Questions, Emerging Directions. Annual Review of Epidemiology. 1997;7:322-333.
78. Isajiw WW. Understanding diversity: Ethnicity and race in the Canadian Context. Toronto: Thompson Educational Publishing Inc., 1999:17-36.
79. Comstock RD, Castillo EM, Lindsay SP. Four-Year Review of the Use of Race and Ethnicity in Epidemiologic and Public Health Research. Am J Epidemiol. 2004;159:611-619.
80. Trimble JE, Dickson R. Ethnic Identity. In Fisher CB and Lerner RM, eds. Applied developmental science: An encyclopedia of research, policies, and programs. Thousand Oaks: Sage. In press.
81. Allahar A. The social construction of primordial identities. In Hier SP and Bolaria BS, eds. Identity and Belonging: Rethinking race and ethnicity in Canadian society. Toronto: Canadian Scholars' Press Inc., 2006;Chapter 2:31-42.
82. Connor W. Ethnonationalism: The Quest for Understanding. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994:89-117.
83. Smith AD. The ethnic origins of nations. New York: Basil Blackwell, 1986:1-20.
84. Van Den Berghe PL. Ethnicity and the sociobiology debate. In Rex J and Mason, D, eds. Theories of Race and Ethnic Relations. Cambridge University Press, 1986:246-263.
85. Kaufman SJ. Ethnic fears and ethnic war in Karabagh. Centre for Strategic and International Studies. 1998. URL: www.csis.org/ruseura/pronars/ working_papers.
86. Cheung YW. Approaches to ethnicity: Clearing roadblocks in the study of ethnicity and substance abuse. International Journal of Addictions. 1993;28(12):1209-1226.
87. Phinney J. Ethnic identity and acculturation. In Chun K, Organista PB, and Marin G, eds. Acculturation: Advances in theory, measurement, and applied research. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 2003:63-81
88. Tajfel H. Social identity and intergroup relations. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982:207-240.
89. Weinreich P, Saunderson W, eds. Analyzing identity: Cross-cultural, societal and clinical contexts. New York: Routledge, 2003:7-110 & 115-170.
90. Statistics Canada. National Population Health Survey, Cycle 2. 1996. URL: http://www.statcan.ca/cgi-bin/imdb/p2SV.pl?Function=getSurvey&SDDS= 3225&lang=en&db=IMDB&dbg=f&adm=8&dis=2.
91. Statistics Canada. Canadian Community Health Survey, Cycle 1.1. 2000. URL: http://www.statcan.ca/english/concepts/health/.
92. Nazroo JY. Genetic, cultural or socioeconomic vulnerability? Explaining ethnic inequalities in health. Sociol Health Illn. 1998;20:710-730.
93. Nazroo JY. The structuring of ethnic inequalities in health: economic position, racial discrimination and racism. Am J Public Health. 2003;93(2):277-84.
94. Statistics Canada. National Longitudinal Survey for Child and Youth, Cycle 1. 1994. URL: http://www.statcan.ca/cgi-bin/imdb/p2SV.pl?Function= getSurvey&SurvId=4450&SurvVer=0&InstaId=16044&InstaVer= 1&SDDS=4450&lang=en&db=imdb&dbg=f&adm=8&dis=2.
95. Statistics Canada. National Survey of Giving, Volunteering and Participating, Cycle 1. 1997. URL: http://www.statcan.ca/cgi-bin/imdb/p2SV.pl? Function=getSur vey&SurvId=4430&SurvVer=0&InstaId= 16024&InstaVer=1&SDDS=4430&lang=en&db=imdb&dbg=f&adm= 8&dis=2.
96. Statistics Canada. General Social Survey - Victimization. 1999. URL: http://www.statcan.ca/cgi-bin/imdb/p2SV.pl?Function =getSurvey&SDDS= 4504&lang=en&db=IMDB&dbg=f&adm=8&dis=2.
97. LaVeist TA. Beyond Dummy Variables and Sample Selection: What Health Services Researchers Ought to Know about Race as a variable. Health Serv Res. 1994;29:1-16.
98. Yinger JM. Ethnicity: Source of Strength? Source of Conflict? New York: State University of New York Press, 1994:1-67 & 167-198.
99. Stolley PD. Race in Epidemiology. Int J Health Serv. 1999;29:905-909.
100. Chaturvedi N. Ethnicity as an epidemiological determinant-crudely racist or crucially important? Int J Epidemiol. 2001;30:925-927.
101. James CE. Race, ethnicity and cultural identity. In Hier SP and Bolaria BS, eds. Identity and Belonging: Rethinking race and ethnicity in Canadian society. Toronto, Canada: Canadian Scholars' Press Inc., 2006;Chapter 3:43-55.
102. Di Biase S, Bauder H. Immigrants in Ontario: Linking Spatial Settlement Patterns and Labour Force Characteristics. Department of Geography, University of Guelph. 2004. URL: www.uoguelph.ca/geography/research/ffw/papers/ Settlement%20in%20Ontario_report.pdf.
103. Ali J, Grabb E. Ethnic origin, class origin and educational attainment in Canada: Further evidence on the mosaic thesis. Journal of Canadian Studies. 1998;32:3-21.
104. Breton R, Roseborough H. Ethnic differences in status. In Blishen BR et al., eds. Canadian Society. Toronto: Macmillan, 1968:683-701.
105. Thompson EN. Immigrant Occupational Skill Outcomes and the Role of Region-Of-Origin-Specific Human Capital-September 2000. Ottawa: Human Resources Development Canada. 2000. Cat. No. W-00-8E.
106. Wallace M. "Planning Amidst Diversity: The Challenges of Multiculturalism in Urban and Suburban Greater Toronto." PhD Thesis. University of Waterloo, 1999.
107. Beshiri, R. Immigrants in rural Canada: 2001 update. Rural and Small Town Canada Analysis Bulletin. 2004;5:1-27. Cat. No. 21-006-XIE.
108. Schellenberg G. Trends and Conditions in Census Metropolitan Areas: Immigrants in Canada's Census Metropolitan Areas. Statistics Canada. 2004. Cat. No. 89-613-MIE - No. 003. URL: http://www.statcan. ca/english/research/89-613- MIE/2004003/89-613-MIE2004003.pdf.
109. Manitoba and Northern Affairs. Aboriginal People in Manitoba 2000. URL: http://www.gov.mb.ca/ana/apm2000/index.html.
110. Office of the Registrar General, India. Proportion and growth rate of population by religious communities - India : 1961-2001. URL: http://www.censusindia.net/ religiondata/statement.pdf.