Heart rate and outcome in patients with cardiovascular disease undergoing major noncardiac surgery

Anaesthesia and Intensive Care

Volumn 36, Issue 4, 2008, Pages 489-501

  Biccard, B M ^a,b,c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF KWAZULU NATAL   (South Africa)

^b INKOSI ALBERT LUTHULI CENTRAL HOSPITAL   (South Africa)

^c UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Complications; Death; Heart; Heart rate; Risk assessment; Risk factors; Surgery; Vascular

Indexed keywords

BRADYCARDIA; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; HEART RATE; HUMAN; INTRAOPERATIVE PERIOD; MORBIDITY; MORTALITY; OUTCOME ASSESSMENT; REVIEW; SURGICAL PATIENT;

EID: 47749090144     PISSN: 0310057X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0310057x0803600403     Document Type: Review

References (88)

1. Goldman L, Caldera DL, Nussbaum SR, Southwick FS, Krogstad D, Murray B et al. Multifactorial index of cardiac risk in noncardiac surgical procedures. N Engl J Med 1977; 297:845-850.
2. Detsky AS, Abrams HB, Forbath N, Scott JG, Hilliard JR. Cardiac assessment for patients undergoing noncardiac surgery. A multifactorial clinical risk index. Arch Intern Med 1986; 146:2131-2134.
3. L'Italien GJ, Paul SD, Hendel RC, Leppo JA, Cohen MC, Fleisher LA et al. Development and validation of a Bayesian model for perioperative cardiac risk assessment in a cohort of 1,081 vascular surgical candidates. J Am Coll Cardiol 1996; 27:779-786.
4. Lee TH, Marcantonio ER, Mangione CM, Thomas EJ, Polanczyk CA, Cook EF et al. Derivation and prospective validation of a simple index for prediction of cardiac risk of major noncardiac surgery. Circulation 1999; 100:1043-1049.
5. Kertai MD, Boersma E, Klein J, van Sambeek M, Schouten O, van Urk H et al. Optimizing the prediction of perioperative mortality in vascular surgery by using a customized probability model. Arch Intern Med 2005; 165:898-904.
6. Howell SJ, Sear JW. Perioperative myocardial injury: individual and population implications. Br J Anaesth 2004; 93:3-8.
7. Azbel M. Universal biological scaling and mortality. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1994; 91:12453-12457.
8. Speakman JR. Body size, energy metabolism and lifespan. J Exp Biol 2005; 208:1717-1730.
9. Mattson MP, Wan R. Beneficial effects of intermittent fasting and caloric restriction on the cardiovascular and cerebrovascular systems. J Nutr Biochem 2005; 16:129-137.
10. Levine HJ. Rest heart rate and life expectancy. J Am Coll Cardiol 1997; 30:1104-1106.
11. Cook S, Togni M, Schaub MC, Wenaweser P, Hess OM. High heart rate: a cardiovascular risk factor? Eur Heart J 2006; 27:2387-2393.
12. De Meersman RE, Stein PK. Vagal modulation and aging. Biol Psychol 2007; 74:165-173.
13. Bauman WA, Spungen AM. Disorders of carbohydrate and lipid metabolism in veterans with paraplegia or quadriplegia: a model of premature aging. Metabolism 1994; 43:749-756.
14. Grimm DR, DeMeersman RE, Garofano RP, Spungen AM, Bauman WA. Effect of provocative maneuvers on heart rate variability in subjects with quadriplegia. Am J Physiol 1995; 268:H2239-2245.
15. Biccard BM, Pooran RR. Validation of a model to predict all-cause in-hospital mortality in vascular surgical patients. Cardiovasc J Afr 2008; In press.
16. Greenland P, Daviglus ML, Dyer AR, Liu K, Huang CF, Goldberger JJ et al. Resting heart rate is a risk factor for cardiovascular and noncardiovascular mortality: the Chicago Heart Association Detection Project in Industry. Am J Epidemiol 1999; 149:853-862.
17. Benetos A, Rudnichi A, Thomas F, Safar M, Guize L. Influence of heart rate on mortality in a French population: role of age, gender, and blood pressure. Hypertension 1999; 33:44-52.
18. Reunanen A, Karjalainen J, Ristola P, Heliovaara M, Knekt P, Aromaa A. Heart rate and mortality. J Intern Med 2000; 247:231-239.
19. Gillum RF, Makuc DM, Feldman JJ. Pulse rate, coronary heart disease, and death: the NHANES I Epidemiologic Follow-up Study. Am Heart J 1991; 121:172-177.
20. Habib GB. Reappraisal of heart rate as a risk factor in the general population. Eur Heart J Supplements 1999; H1:H2-H10.
21. Kannel WB, Kannel C, Paffenbarger RS Jr, Cupples LA. Heart rate and cardiovascular mortality: the Framingham Study. Am Heart J 1987; 113:1489-1494.
22. Diaz A, Bourassa MG, Guertin MC, Tardif JC. Long-term prognostic value of resting heart rate in patients with suspected or proven coronary artery disease. Eur Heart J 2005; 26:967-974.
23. Eagle KA, Lim MJ, Dabbous OH, Pieper KS, Goldberg RJ, Van de Werf F et al. A validated prediction model for all forms of acute coronary syndrome: estimating the risk of 6-month postdischarge death in an international registry. JAMA 2004; 291:2727-2733.
24. Fox KA, Dabbous OH, Goldberg RJ, Pieper KS, Eagle KA, Van de Werf F et al. Prediction of risk of death and myocardial infarction in the six months after presentation with acute coronary syndrome: prospective multinational observational study (GRACE). BMJ 2006; 333:1091.
25. Lechat P, Hulot JS, Escolano S, Mallet A, Leizorovicz A, Werhlen-Grandjean M et al. Heart rate and cardiac rhythm relationships with bisoprolol benefit in chronic heart failure in CIBIS II Trial. Circulation 2001; 103:1428-1433.
26. Palatini P, Benetos A, Julius S. Impact of increased heart rate on clinical outcomes in hypertension: implications for antihypertensive drug therapy. Drugs 2006; 66:133-144.
27. Thayer JF, Lane RD. The role of vagal function in the risk for cardiovascular disease and mortality. Biol Psychol 2007; 74:224-242.
28. Libby P, Theroux P. Pathophysiology of coronary artery disease. Circulation 2005; 111:3481-3488.
29. Ridker PM, Cannon CP, Morrow D, Rifai N, Rose LM, McCabe CH et al. C-reactive protein levels and outcomes after statin therapy. N Engl J Med 2005; 352:20-28.
30. Sajadieh A, Nielsen OW, Rasmussen V, Hein HO, Abedini S, Hansen JF. Increased heart rate and reduced heart-rate variability are associated with subclinical inflammation in middle-aged and elderly subjects with no apparent heart disease. Eur Heart J 2004; 25:363-370.
31. Heidland UE, Strauer BE. Left ventricular muscle mass and elevated heart rate are associated with coronary plaque disruption. Circulation 2001; 104:1477-1482.
32. Martin LJ, Comuzzie AG, Sonnenberg GE, Myklebust J, James R, Marks J et al. Major quantitative trait locus for resting heart rate maps to a region on chromosome 4. Hypertension 2004; 43:1146-1151.
33. Wilk JB, Myers RH, Zhang Y, Lewis CE, Atwood L, Hopkins PN et al. Evidence for a gene influencing heart rate on chromosome 4 among hypertensives. Hum Genet 2002; 111:207-213.
34. Ranade K, Jorgenson E, Sheu WH, Pei D, Hsiung CA, Chiang FT et al. A polymorphism in the beta1 adrenergic receptor is associated with resting heart rate. Am J Hum Genet 2002; 70:935-942.
35. Singh BN. Increased heart rate as a risk factor for cardiovascular disease. Eur Heart J Supplements 2003; 5:G3-9.
36. Liggett SB, Mialet-Perez J, Thaneemit-Chen S, Weber SA, Greene SM, Hodne D et al. A polymorphism within a conserved beta(1)-adrenergic receptor motif alters cardiac function and beta-blocker response in human heart failure. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2006; 103:11288-11293.
37. Akhter SA, D'Souza KM, Petrashevskaya NN, Mialet-Perez J, Liggett SB. Myocardial beta1-adrenergic receptor polymorphisms affect functional recovery after ischemic injury. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2006; 290:H1427-1432.
38. Jeger RV, Probst C, Arsenic R, Lippuner T, Pfisterer ME, Seeberger MD et al. Long-term prognostic value of the preoperative 12-lead electrocardiogram before major noncardiac surgery in coronary artery disease. Am Heart J 2006; 151:508-513.
39. Feringa HH, Bax JJ, Boersma E, Kertai MD, Meij SH, Galal W et al. High-dose beta-blockers and tight heart rate control reduce myocardial ischemia and troponin T release in vascular surgery patients. Circulation 2006; 114 (1 Suppl):I344-1349.
40. Reich DL, Bennett-Guerrero E, Bodian CA, Hossain S, Winfree W, Krol M. Intraoperative tachycardia and hypertension are independently associated with adverse outcome in noncardiac surgery of long duration. Anesth Analg 2002; 95:273-277.
41. Gawande AA, Kwaan MR, Regenbogen SE, Lipsitz SA, Zinner MJ. An Apgar score for surgery. J Am Coll Surg 2007; 204:201-208.
42. Groves J, Edwards ND, Carr B, Sherry KM. Perioperative myocardial ischaemia, heart rate and arrhythmia in patients undergoing thoracotomy: an observational study. Br J Anaesth 1999; 83:850-854.
43. Poldermans D, Bax JJ, Schouten O, Neskovic AN, Paelinck B, Rocci G et al. Should major vascular surgery be delayed because of preoperative cardiac testing in intermediate-risk patients receiving beta-blocker therapy with tight heart rate control? J Am Coll Cardiol 2006; 48:964-969.
44. Leung JM, Dzankic S. Relative importance of preoperative health status versus intraoperative factors in predicting postoperative adverse outcomes in geriatric surgical patients. J Am Geriatr Soc 2001; 49:1080-1085.
45. Rinfret S, Goldman L, Polanczyk CA, Cook EF, Lee TH. Value of immediate postoperative electrocardiogram to update risk stratification after major noncardiac surgery. Am J Cardiol 2004; 94:1017-1022.
46. Sternbach Y, Illig KA, Zhang R, Shortell CK, Rhodes JM, Davies MG et al. Hemodynamic benefits of regional anesthesia for carotid endarterectomy. J Vasc Surg 2002; 35:333-339.
47. Christopherson R, Glavan NJ, Norris EJ, Beattie C, Rock P, Frank SM et al. Control of blood pressure and heart rate in patients randomized to epidural or general anesthesia for lower extremity vascular surgery. Perioperative Ischemia Randomized Anesthesia Trial (PIRAT) Study Group. J Clin Anesth 1996; 8:578-584.
48. Sprung J, Abdelmalak B, Gottlieb A, Mayhew C, Hammel J, Levy PJ et al. Analysis of risk factors for myocardial infarction and cardiac mortality after major vascular surgery. Anesthesiology 2000; 93:129-140.
49. Anderson KJ, Sear JW. QTc dispersion is prolonged in patients with early postoperative adverse cardiovascular events and those with silent myocardial ischemia. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth 2004; 18:281-287.
50. Goldhill DR, McNarry AF. Physiological abnormalities in early warning scores are related to mortality in adult inpatients. Br J Anaesth 2004; 92:882-884.
51. Goldhill DR, McNarry AF, Mandersloot G, McGinley A. A physiologically-based early warning score for ward patients: the association between score and outcome. Anaesthesia 2005; 60:547-553.
52. Cuthbertson BH, Boroujerdi M, McKie L, Aucott L, Prescott G. Can physiological variables and early warning scoring systems allow early recognition of the deteriorating surgical patient? Crit Care Med 2007; 35:402-409.
53. Duckitt RW, Buxton-Thomas R, Walker J, Cheek E, Bewick V, Venn R et al. Worthing physiological scoring system: derivation and validation of a physiological early-warning system for medical admissions. An observational, population-based single-centre study. Br J Anaesth 2007; 98:769-774.
54. Landesberg G. Monitoring for myocardial ischemia. Best Pract Res Clin Anaesthesiol 2005; 19:77-95.
55. Mangano DT, Browner WS, Hollenberg M, London MJ, Tubau JF, Tateo IM. Association of perioperative myocardial ischemia with cardiac morbidity and mortality in men undergoing noncardiac surgery. The Study of Perioperative Ischemia Research Group. N Engl J Med 1990; 323:1781-1788.
56. Landesberg G, Mosseri M, Zahger D, Wolf Y, Perouansky M, Anner H et al. Myocardial infarction after vascular surgery: the role of prolonged stress-induced, ST depression-type ischemia. J Am Coll Cardiol 2001; 37:1839-1845.
57. Ouyang P, Gerstenblith G, Furman WR, Golueke PJ, Gottlieb SO. Frequency and significance of early postoperative silent myocardial ischemia in patients having peripheral vascular surgery. Am J Cardiol 1989; 64:1113-1116.
58. Fleisher LA, Nelson AH, Rosenbaum SH. Postoperative myocardial ischemia: etiology of cardiac morbidity or manifestation of underlying disease? J Clin Anesth 1995; 7:97-102.
59. Landesberg G, Luria MH, Cotev S, Eidelman LA, Anner H, Mosseri M et al. Importance of long-duration postoperative ST-segment depression in cardiac morbidity after vascular surgery. Lancet 1993; 341:715-719.
60. Landesberg G. The pathophysiology of perioperative myocardial infarction: facts and perspectives. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth 2003; 17:90-100.
61. McCann RL, Clements FM. Silent myocardial ischemia in patients undergoing peripheral vascular surgery: incidence and association with perioperative cardiac morbidity and mortality. J Vasc Surg 1989; 9:583-587.
62. Pasternack PF, Grossi EA, Baumann FG, Riles TS, Lamparello PJ, Giangola G et al. Beta blockade to decrease silent myocardial ischemia during peripheral vascular surgery. Am J Surg 1989; 158:113-116.
63. Longhitano S, Coriat P, Agro F. Postoperative myocardial infarction: pathophysiology, new diagnostic criteria, prevention. Minerva Anestesiol 2006; 72:965-983.
64. Rohrig R, Junger A, Hartmann B, Klasen J, Quinzio L, Jost A et al. The incidence and prediction of automatically detected intraoperative cardiovascular events in noncardiac surgery. Anesth Analg 2004; 98:569-577.
65. McGaughey J, Alderdice F, Fowler R, Kapila A, Mayhew A, Moutray M. Outreach and Early Warning Systems (EWS) for the prevention of intensive care admission and death of critically ill adult patients on general hospital wards. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2007; 3:CD005529.
66. Hillman K, Chen J, Cretikos M, Bellomo R, Brown D, Doig G et al. Introduction of the medical emergency team (MET) system: a cluster-randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2005; 365:2091-2097.
67. Priestley G, Watson W, Rashidian A, Mozley C, Russell D, Wilson J et al. Introducing Critical Care Outreach: a ward-randomised trial of phased introduction in a general hospital. Intensive Care Med 2004; 30:1398-1404.
68. Goldhill DR. Of missiles and medicine: early warning systems. Anaesthesia 2006; 61:209-211.
69. Cuthbertson BH, Smith GB. A warning on early-warning scores! Br J Anaesth 2007; 98:704-706.
70. Biccard BM, Sear JW, Foex P. Meta-analysis of the effect of heart rate achieved by perioperative beta-adrenergic blockade on cardiovascular outcomes. Br J Anaesth 2008; 100:23-28.
71. Brady AR, Gibbs JS, Greenhalgh RM, Powell JT, Sydes MR. Perioperative beta-blockade (POBBLE) for patients undergoing infrarenal vascular surgery: results of a randomized double-blind controlled trial. J Vasc Surg 2005; 41:602-609.
72. Juul AB, Wetterslev J, Gluud C, Kofoed-Enevoldsen A, Jensen G, Callesen T et al. Effect of perioperative beta blockade in patients with diabetes undergoing major non-cardiac surgery: randomised placebo controlled, blinded multicentre trial. BMJ 2006; 332:1482.
73. Devereaux PJ, Beattie WS, Choi PT, Badner NH, Guyatt GH, Villar JC et al. How strong is the evidence for the use of perioperative beta blockers in non-cardiac surgery? Systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. BMJ 2005; 331:313-321.
74. Wiesbauer F, Schlager O, Domanovits H, Wildner B, Maurer G, Muellner M et al. Perioperative beta-blockers for preventing surgery-related mortality and morbidity: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Anesth Analg 2007; 104:27-41.
75. Wetterslev J, Juul AB. Benefits and harms of perioperative beta-blockade. Best Pract Res Clin Anaesthesiol 2006; 20:285-302.
76. Raby KE, Brull SJ, Timimi F, Akhtar S, Rosenbaum S, Naimi C et al. The effect of heart rate control on myocardial ischemia among high-risk patients after vascular surgery. Anesth Analg 1999; 88:477-482.
77. Beattie WS, Wijeysundera DN, Karkouti K, McCluskey S, Tait G. Does tight heart rate control improve beta-blocker efficacy? An updated analysis of the noncardiac surgical randomized trials. Anesth Analg 2008; 106:1039-1048.
78. Zaugg M, Tagliente T, Lucchinetti E, Jacobs E, Krol M, Bodian C et al. Beneficial effects from beta-adrenergic blockade in elderly patients undergoing noncardiac surgery. Anesthesiology 1999; 91:1674-1686.
79. Poldermans D, Boersma E, Bax JJ, Thomson IR, van de Ven LL, Blankensteijn JD et al. The effect of bisoprolol on perioperative mortality and myocardial infarction in high-risk patients undergoing vascular surgery. Dutch Echocardiographic Cardiac Risk Evaluation Applying Stress Echocardiography Study Group. N Engl J Med 1999; 341:1789-1794.
80. Zaugg M, Bestmann L, Wacker J, Lucchinetti E, Boltres A, Schulz C et al. Adrenergic receptor genotype but not perioperative bisoprolol therapy may determine cardiovascular outcome in at-risk patients undergoing surgery with spinal block: the Swiss Beta Blocker in Spinal Anesthesia (BBSA) study: a double-blinded, placebo-controlled, multicenter trial with 1-year follow-up. Anesthesiology 2007; 107:33-44.
81. Berg C, Berger DH, Makia A, Whalen C, Albo D, Bellows C et al. Perioperative beta-blocker therapy and heart rate control during noncardiac surgery. Am J Surg 2007; 194:189-191.
82. Sander O, Welters ID, Foex P, Sear JW. Impact of prolonged elevated heart rate on incidence of major cardiac events in critically ill patients with a high risk of cardiac complications. Crit Care Med 2005; 33:81-88.
83. Palatini P. Heart rate: a strong predictor of mortality in subjects with coronary artery disease. Eur Heart J 2005; 26:943-945.
84. Zaugg M, Schaub MC, Pasch T, Spahn DR. Modulation of beta-adrenergic receptor subtype activities in perioperative medicine: mechanisms and sites of action. Br J Anaesth 2002; 88:101-123
85. Palatini P, Benetos A, Grassi G, Julius S, Kjeldsen SE, Mancia G et al. Identification and management of the hypertensive patient with elevated heart rate: statement of a European Society of Hypertension Consensus Meeting. J Hypertens 2006; 24:603-610.
86. Lee KL, Woodlief LH, Topol EJ, Weaver WD, Betriu A, Col J et al. Predictors of 30-day mortality in the era of reperfusion for acute myocardial infarction. Results from an international trial of 41,021 patients. GUSTO-I Investigators. Circulation 1995; 91:1659-1668.
87. Biccard BM, Goga S, de Beurs J. Dexmedetomidine and cardiac protection for non-cardiac surgery: a meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. Anaesthesia 2008; 63:4-14.
88. POISE Study Group. Effects of extended-release metoprolol succinate in patients undergoing non-cardiac surgery. (POISE trial): a randomised controlled trial. The Lancet 2008; doi:10.1016/SO140-6736(08)60601-7.