From ubombo to mkhuzi: Disease, colonial science, and the control of nagana (livestock trypanosomosis) in Zululand, South Africa, c. 1894-1953

Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences

Volumn 63, Issue 3, 2008, Pages 285-322

  Brown, Karen ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Colonial science; DDT; Game; Livestock; Nagana; Onderstepoort; Trypanosomosis; Tsetse; Veterinary medicine; Zululand

Indexed keywords

CHLORPHENOTANE;

AFRICAN TRYPANOSOMIASIS; ANIMAL; ANIMAL DISEASE; ARTICLE; CATTLE; DISEASE MODEL; HISTORY; HUMAN; ISOLATION AND PURIFICATION; POLITICAL SYSTEM; SOUTH AFRICA; TRYPANOSOMA;

ANIMALS; CATTLE; COLONIALISM; DDT; DISEASE MODELS, ANIMAL; HISTORY, 19TH CENTURY; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; HUMANS; SOUTH AFRICA; TRYPANOSOMA; TRYPANOSOMIASIS, AFRICAN;

EID: 46749105613     PISSN: 00225045     EISSN: 14684373     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/jhmas/jrn003     Document Type: Article

References (177)

1. René du Toit, "Trypanosomiasis in Zululand and the Control of Tsetse Flies by Chemical Means," Onderstepoort J. Vet. Res., 1954, 26, 318.
2. In 1994, the Committee for the Standardised Nomenclature for Parasitic Diseases opted to replace the Latinized term "trypanosomiasis" with trypanosomosis, derived from Greek, see D. Bourn, R. Reid, D. Rogers, B. Snow, and W. Wint, Environmental Change and the Autonomous Control of Tsetse and Trypanosomosis in Sub-Saharan Africa (Oxford: Environmental Research Group, 2001), 1. Trypanosomosis is found in many parts of sub-Saharan Africa and is transmitted to humans in the form of sleeping sickness, or to domestic animals as nagana, by various species of tsetse fly (Glossinae). These diseases are caused by parasites known as trypanosomes. Climate, vegetation, and the presence of game all affect the type of flies and trypanosomes that exist in a particular area and determine whether a region is subject to human or livestock trypanosomosis, or both.
3. For more details on the science, see for example, H. Mulligan, The African Trypanosomiasis (London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd, 1970);
4. J. Ford, The Role of Trypanosomiasis in African Ecology: A Study of the Tsetse Fly Problem (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971);
5. J. McKelvey, Man Against Tsetse: Struggle for Africa (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1973);
6. L. Stephen, Trypanosomiasis - A Veterinary Perspective (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1986);
7. J. Busvine, Disease Transmission by Insects: Its Discovery and Ninety Years of Efforts to Prevent It (Berlin: Springer Verlag, 1993);
8. Bourn et al., Environmental Change.
9. Although South Africa was the first mainland country to eradicate a species of fly, the Portuguese had cleared the island of Principe of tsetse in the second decade of the twentieth century, primarily by using humans as a form of fly trap. See Busvine, Disease Transmission by Insects, 167-68.
10. For a general history of Natal, see A. Duminy and B. Guest, eds., Natal and Zululand from Earliest Times to 1910: A New History (Pietermaritzburg: University of Natal Press, 1989).
11. For example, D. C. Dorward and A. I. Payne, "Deforestation, the Decline of the Horse and the Spread of the Tsetse Fly and Trypanosomiasis (nagana) in Nineteenth Century Sierra Leone," J. African Hist., 1975, 16, 239-56, is a rare example of work on nagana;
12. H. Kjekshus, Ecology Control and Economic Development in East African History: The Case of Tanganyika 1850-1950 (London: Heinemann, 1977);
13. L. Vail, "Ecology and History: The Example of Eastern Zambia," J. So. African Stud., 1977, 3, 129-55;
14. D. Dormergue, "La Lutte contre la Trypanosomiase en Cote d'Ivoire 1900-1945," J. African Hist., 1981, 22, 63-72;
15. J. McCracken, "Experts and Expertise in Colonial Malawi," African Affairs, 1982, 81, 101-16;
16. J. Giblin, "Trypanosomiasis Control in African History: An Evaded Issue?," J. African Hist., 1990, 31, 59-80;
17. R. Waller, "Tsetse Fly in Western Narok, Kenya," 1990, 31, 81-101;
18. M. Vaughan, Curing Their Ills: Colonial Power and African Illness (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1991), 29-54;
19. M. Lyons, The Colonial Disease: A Social History of Sleeping Sickness in Northern Zaire 1900-1940 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992);
20. M. Worboys, "The Comparative History of Sleeping Sickness in East and Central Africa, 1900-1914," Hist. Sci., 1994, 32, 89-102;
21. L. White, "Tsetse Visions: Narratives of Blood and Bugs in Colonial Northern Rhodesia 1931-39," J. African Hist., 1995, 36, 219-45;
22. K. Arden Hoppe, Lords of the Fly: Sleeping Sickness Control in British East Africa, 1900-1960 (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2003).
23. P. Cranefield, Science and Empire: East Coast Fever in Rhodesia and the Transvaal (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991);
24. W. Beinart, "Vets, Viruses and Environmentalism at the Cape," Paideuma, 1997, 43, 227-52;
25. D. Gilfoyle, "Veterinary Science and Public Policy at the Cape, c. 1877-1910" (D.Phil. Thesis, University of Oxford, 2002);
26. D. Gilfoyle, "Veterinary Research and the African Rinderpest Epizootic: The Cape Colony 1896-98," J. So. African Stud., 2003, 29, 133-54;
27. D. Gilfoyle, "Veterinary Immunology as Colonial Science: Method and Quantification in the Investigation of Horsesickness in South Africa, c. 1905-1945," J. Hist. Med. Allied Sci., 2006, 61, 26-65;
28. D. Gilfoyle, "Anthrax in South Africa: Economics, Experiment and the Mass Vaccination of Animals c1910-1945," Med. Hist., 2006, 50, 465-90;
29. K. Brown, "Tropical Medicine and Animal Diseases: Onderstepoort and the Development of Veterinary Science in South Africa 1908-1950," J. So. African Stud., 2005, 31, 413-529.
30. P. Palladino and M. Worboys, "Science and Imperialism," Isis, 1993, 84, 97.
31. D. R. Headrick, The Tools of Empire. Technology and European Imperialism in the Nineteenth Century (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1981);
32. D. R. Headrick, The Tentacles of Progress: Technology Transfer in the Age of Imperialism, 1850-1940 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988).
33. S. Brooks, "Changing Nature: A Critical Historical Geography of the Umfolozi and Hluhluwe Game Reserves, Zululand 1887-1947" (Ph.D. diss., Queens University, 2001).
34. Brown, "Tropical Medicine and Animal Diseases."
35. D. Wade Chambers and R. Gillespie, "Locality in the History of Science: Colonial Science, Technoscience, and Indigenous Knowledge," in Nature and Empire: Science and the Colonial Enterprise, ed. R. MacLeod, Osiris, 2000, 15, 221-40.
36. L. Robin, "Ecology: A Science of Empire," in Ecology and Empire: Environmental History of Settler Societies, ed. T. Griffiths and L. Robin (Edinburgh: Keele University Press, 1997), 63-75.
37. See also, P. Anker, Imperial Ecology: Environmental Order in the British Empire, 1895-1945 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001);
38. H. Tilley, "Africa as a Living Laboratory: The African Research Survey and the British Colonial Empire: Consolidating Environmental, Medical and Anthropological Debates 1920-1940" (D.Phil. Thesis, University of Oxford, 2001);
39. H. Tilley, "African Environments and Environmental Sciences: The African Research Survey, Ecological Paradigms and British Colonial Development 1920-40," in Social History and African Environments, ed. W. Beinart and J. McGregor (Oxford: James Currey, 2003), 109-31.
40. J. Stevenson-Hamilton, "The Relation between Game and Tsetse Flies," Bull. Ent. Res., 1911, 2, 113-18;
41. J. Stevenson-Hamilton, Animal Life in Africa (London: William Heinemann, 1912).
42. See also C. Fuller, "Tsetse in the Transvaal and Surrounding Territories: A Historical Review," Ninth and Tenth Reports of the Director of Veterinary Services, Union of South Africa, 1923, 316-76. Background information to this report is on file in file SF48a (17), Box 995, Central Government Department of Entomology Papers, Pretoria National Archives, Pretoria, South Africa (PNA).
43. For background information on game conservation movements and the creation of the Sabi, later Kruger Park, see J. Carruthers, The Kruger National Park: A Social and Political History (Pietermaritzburg: University of Natal Press, 1995).
44. For comparisons, see for example, Ford, Role of Trypanosomiasis, and Kjekshus, Ecology Control and Economic Development in East African History.
45. "Report of the Resident Commissioner for the Month of July 1891," file 74, box 43, Zululand Archive Papers, Pietermaritzburg Archive Repository, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa (PAR).
46. E. C. Buxton, "The Tsetse," Newman's Ent., 1871, 5, 283-84.
47. For other examples, D. Leslie, Among the Zulus and the Amatongas (London: MacMillan & Co., 1875), 182;
48. Resident Commissioner, M. Clarke, to the Governor, Walter Hely Hutchinson, 9 January 1895, file Z26/1895, box 762, Zululand Government House Papers, PAR;
49. D. Bruce, Preliminary Report on the Tsetse Fly Disease or Nagana in Zululand (Durban: Bennett & Davis Printers, 1895);
50. Fuller, "Tsetse in the Transvaal," 342;
51. H. Curson's report "Miscellaneous Notes on Glossina Pallidipes," 28 April 1923, file SF48a (18), box 996, Central Government Department of Entomology Papers, PNA.
52. Surra is a form of trypanosomosis that affects camels and horses in Asia and the Middle East. G. Evans, "On a Horse Disease in India Known as "Surra" Probably Due to a Haematozoon," Vet. Rec., 1881, 13, 1-10, 82-88, 180-90;
53. G. Evans, "On a Horse Disease in India Known as "Surra" Probably Due to a Haematozoon," Vet. Rec., 1882, 14, 97-110, 181-87.
54. For example, D. Haynes, Imperial Medicine: Patrick Manson and the Conquest of Tropical Disease (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2001), 29-57.
55. T. Smith and F. Kilborne, Investigations into the Nature, Causation and Prevention of Texas or Southern Cattle Fever (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1893).
56. S. Rolando, "Natal Veterinary Services 1874-1912: With Special Reference to the Contributions of Samuel Wiltshire and Herbert Watkins-Pitchford" (MA Thesis, University of Natal, 1990).
57. David Bruce to Alexandra, 6 February 1896, file 1340/2, Royal Army Medical Corps, Wellcome Trust Library, London, England (WTL).
58. W. Hely Hutchinson to Lord Ripon, Secretary of State, 24 November 1893, file Z123/1894, box 762, Zululand Government House Papers, PAR.
59. For the latest discussion of British ideas about colonial development see J. Hodge, Triumph of the Expert: Agrarian Doctrines of Development and the Legacies of British Colonialism (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2006).
60. Details taken from D. Bruce, Preliminary Report on the Tsetse Fly;
61. D. Bruce, Further Report on the Tsetse Fly Disease or Nagana in Zululand (London: Harrison & Sons, 1897), as well as records in the Wellcome Trust Library, London. In particular, Bruce, "Tsetse Fly Disease or Nagana in Zululand," 13 January 1903, file G25, box 18, Wellcome Tropical Institute Collection, WTL;
62. Bruce to Alexandra, 9 February 1896 and 24 April 1896, file 1340/2, Royal Army Medical Corps, WTL;
63. D. Bruce, "The Croonian Lectures on Trypanosomes causing Disease in Man and Domestic Animals in Central Africa," Lancet, 3 July 1915, 1, 1323-30, and 17 July 1915, 2, 109-15.
64. A. W. Shilston, "Notes on Zululand Trypanosomes," Second Report of the Director of Veterinary Research, Union of South Africa, 1912, 362-86;
65. H. Curson, "On the Causal Organisms of Nagana," So. African J. Sci., 1924, 21, 432-34;
66. E. C. Chubb, "A New Tsetse Fly from Zululand," Nature, 1915, 95, 538;
67. Fuller, "Tsetse in the Transvaal."
68. Anon., "The Eradication of East Coast Fever in South Africa," J. So. African Vet. Assoc., 1981, 52, 71-73.
69. Brown, "Tropical Medicine and Animal Diseases."
70. For science and national identity see S. Dubow, A Commonwealth of Knowledge: Science, Sensibility and White South Africa 1820-2000 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006).
71. Anon., "Nagana and Its Relation to Game: Summary of Information Reflected in the Official Correspondence for the years 1912-24," A 357, volume XIII/2/1, John Hershensohnn Papers, PAR. Hershensohnn was the Provincial Secretary of Natal 1910-28 and a keen game conservationist.
72. For more details on the game conservation movement, see Brooks, "Changing Nature."
73. J. M. MacKenzie, The Empire of Nature (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1988).
74. J. Carruthers, "Game Protection in the Transvaal 1900-1910," So. African Hist. J., 1988, 20, 33-56;
75. J. Carruthers, "Creating a National Park 1910-26," J. So. African Stud., 1989, 15, 188-216;
76. J. Carruthers, "Dissecting the Myth: Paul Kruger and the Kruger National Park," J. So. African Stud., 1994, 20, 263-83;
77. Carruthers, Kruger National Park;
78. B. Ellis, "Game Conservation in Zululand 1824-1947," Natalia, 1993-94, 23/24, 27-43;
79. Brooks "Changing Nature;" K. Brown, "Cultural Constructions of the Wild: The Rhetoric and Practice of Wildlife Conservation in the Cape Colony at the turn of the Twentieth Century," So. African Hist. J., 2002, 47, 75-95.
80. D. T. Mitchell, "Interim Report on Diseases in Stock Caused by Trypanosomes in Zululand," file 8/3516, box 499, Natal Provincial Secretary Papers, PAR, quote p. 16.
81. M. Worboys, Spreading Germs: Disease Theories and Medical Practice in Britain 1865-1900 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 43-72;
82. A. Woods, A Manufactured Plague? The History of Foot and Mouth Disease in Britain (London: Earthscan, 2004).
83. Bruce, "Trypanosomes causing Disease in Man and Domestic Animals in Central Africa."
84. R. Jack, "Tsetse Fly in Southern Rhodesia," Bull. Ent. Res., 1919, 10, 71-90. Extensive game slaughter and efforts to drive the tsetse belts back to the Zambezi occurred on a huge scale from the 1910s onwards, and in dealing with Glossina morsitans, were deemed to be relatively effective.
85. See for example R. Jack, "The Tsetse Problem in Southern Rhodesia," Rhodesia Agric. J., 1933, 30, 365-84;
86. J. Chorley (Jack's successor), "Report for the Year Ending 31 December 1945," Rhodesia Agric. J., 1946, 43:6, 547-62;
87. J. Chorley, "Report for the Year Ending 31 December 1947," Rhodesia Agric. J., 1948, 45:3, 230-48;
88. and Ford, Role of Trypanosomiasis.
89. Stevenson-Hamilton, "The Relation between Game and Tsetse Flies;" and Stevenson-Hamilton, Animal Life in Africa, 44-55. F. Vaughan Kirby, "Game and Their Preservation in Zululand," So. African J. Sci., 1916-17, 13-14, 375-96, and his undated notes "Game and Game Preservation in Zululand - Notes from the Natal Museum," pamphlet P22, 2504, Onderstepoort Veterinary Institute Archive, Pretoria, South Africa (OVIA). Also, Hershensohnn, "Nagana and Its Relation to Game."
90. W. D. Foster, A History of Parasitology (Edinburgh: E. & S. Livingstone Ltd., 1965), 133.
91. Anon., "Report upon the Inspection of Lands Lying in and to the North of the Ntambanana Valley, Division of Lower Umfolozi," 30 September 1913, file 3/2, box 1, Department of Lands, Natal Papers, PNA;
92. R. Tanner (Magistrate Lower Umfolozi) to the Surveyor General in Pietermaritzburg, 13 July 1919, file 3/2, box 2, Department of Lands, Natal Papers, PNA;
93. R. Brighton (President Ntambanana Farmers Association) to Members of the Land Board, 9 June 1928, file 2/3, box 3, Department of Lands, Natal Papers, PNA. See also S. Brooks, "'Ropes of Sand': Soldier-Settlers and Nagana in Zululand," in White Farms Black Labor: The State and Agrarian Change in Southern Africa, 1910-50, ed. A. Jeeves and J. Crush (Oxford: James Currey, 1997), 243-64.
94. Anon., "Transcript of Notes," 23 January 1925, volume X111/1/2, box A357, John Hershensohnn Papers, PAR.
95. Fuller, "Tsetse in the Transvaal;" C. Fuller to C. Lounsbury (Chief Entomologist), 30 January 1925, file SF48/1, box 990, Pretoria Department of Entomology Papers, PNA.
96. Brooks, "Changing Nature."
97. H. Curson, "Nagana and the Tartar Emetic Treatment," J. Dept. Agric., 1924, 9, 363-69.
98. For a contemporary overview of insect ecology and tropism see R. Wardle, The Problems of Applied Entomology (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1929), 78-99.
99. R. Harris to C. Lounsbury, draft report on bionomics of the tsetse fly, 1926, page 187, file SF48/1 (6), box 992, Central Government Department of Entomology Papers, PNA.
100. Robin, "Ecology: A Science of Empire;" Anker, Imperial Ecology; Tilley, "Africa as a Living Laboratory;" Tilley, "African Environments and Environmental Sciences."
101. J. A. Mendelsohn, "From Eradication to Equilibrium: How Epidemics Became Complex after World War One," in Greater than the Parts: Holism in Biomedicine 1920-50, ed. C. Lawrence and G. Weisz (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), 303-31.
102. For example, J. Phillips, "The Application of Ecological Research Methods to the Tsetse (Glossina spp) Problem in Tanganyika Territory: A Preliminary Account," Ecology, 1930, 11, 713-33; J. Phillips "The Biotic Community," J. Ecol., 1931, 19, 1-24;
103. J. Phillips to Chief Secretary to the Government of Tanganyika Territory, 22 November 1930, file SF48/1 (3), box 991, Central Government Department of Entomology Papers, PNA;
104. C. Swynnerton, "Some Traps for Tsetse Flies," Bull. Ent. Res., 1933, 24, 69-102;
105. C. Swynnerton, "Tsetse Flies of East Africa: A First Study of Their Ecology with a View to Their Control," Trans. Roy. Ent. Soc., 1936, 84, 1-579.
106. H. Curson, "Nagana in Zululand," Thirteenth and Fourteenth Reports of the Director of Veterinary Education and Research, 1928, 311-411.
107. H, Curson, "Notes on Glossina pallidipes," Bull. Ent. Res., 1924, 14, 445-53.
108. W. O. Neitz, "Blood Parasites of Game in Zululand," Seventeenth Report of the Director of Veterinary Services and Animal Industry, Union of South Africa, 1931, 45-60;
109. W. O. Neitz, "Blood Parasites in Game in Zululand, Further Report," Onderstepoort J. Vet. Sci. Anim. Industry, 1933, 1, 411-17.
110. Curson, "Nagana in Zululand;" Curson, "Notes on Glossina Pallidipes;" Curson "On the Causal Organisms of Nagana," 432-34;
111. H. Curson, "Meteorological Conditions and the Seasonal Prevalence of Nagana in Zululand," So. African J. Sci., 1927, 24, 377-81.
112. C. Lounsbury to C. P. van Der Merwe (government entomologist, Durban), 14 November 1919, file E2/17A, box 82, Central Government Department of Entomology Papers, PNA;
113. C. van der Merwe to C. Lounsbury, 30 April 1920, file E2/17A, box 82, Central Government Department of Entomology Papers, PNA;
114. R. Harris to C. Lounsbury, 12 November 1920, file E2/17A, box 82, Central Government Department of Entomology Papers, PNA.
115. R. Harris to C. Lounsbury, 1 July 1923, file SF48/1, box 990, Central Government Department of Entomology Papers, PNA.
116. Harris was a prolific letter writer and shared his ideas with Lounsbury (Pretoria Archives) and with the zoologist Ernest Warren (Natal Museum Collection, Pietermaritzburg). For an overview, see J. Pringle, The Conservationists and the Killers: The Story of Game Protection and the Wildlife Society of Southern Africa (Cape Town: T.V. Bulpin & Books of Africa (pty) Ltd., 1982).
117. C. M. Wenyon, Protozoology - A Manual for Medical Men, Veterinarians and Zoologists, vol. 1 (London: Bailliere, Tindall & Cox, 1926).
118. R. Harris to E. Warren, 23 June 1925, Ernest Warren Papers, Natal Museum, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa (NMP);
119. E. Warren to R. Harris, 9 July 1925, Ernest Warren Papers, NMP;
120. E. Warren to R. Harris, 15 September 1925, Ernest Warren Papers, NMP;
121. R. Harris to E. Warren, 30 August 1925, Ernest Warren Papers, NMP;
122. R. Harris to E. Warren, 20 August 1925, Ernest Warren Papers, NMP.
123. R. Harris to E. Warren, 20 August 1925, Ernest Warren Papers, NMP.
124. R. Harris, Report on the Bionomics of the Tsetse Fly, Glossina Pallidipes, Aust (Pietermaritzburg: Natal Government Printer, 1930); Curson, "Nagana in Zululand," 311-411.
125. C. Fuller, Interview with The Star, 19 January 1928, 15;
126. C. Fuller and M. C. Mossop, Entomological Notes on Glossina Pallidipes (Pretoria: Government Printer, 1929);
127. R. Jack, "Experiments with Tsetse Fly Traps against Glossina morsitans in Southern Rhodesia," Rhodesia Agric. J., April 1933, 30, 393-98.
128. R. Harris, "Dummy versus Zebra to Attract Tsetse Flies," J. Dept. Agric., 1923, 7, 389.
129. R. Harris to C. Lounsbury, "Report for April 1926," 22 May 1926, file SF48/1 (3), box 991, Central Government Department of Entomology Papers, PNA;
130. Harris, draft report, file SF48/1 (6), box 992, Central Government Department of Entomology Papers, PNA.
131. R. Harris, Report on the Trapping of Tsetse Flies (Pietermaritzburg: Natal Witness Ltd, 1930);
132. R. Harris, "Trapping Tsetse as a Means for the Control of Trypanosomiasis (Nagana)," J. So. African Vet. Med. Assoc., 1931, 2, 27-30.
133. st December 1931," file 8/0/87, box 897, Natal Provincial Secretary Papers, PAR.
134. P. J. du Toit, "Report on Visit to Zululand 20-27 May 1931," file 3/2, box 4, Department of Lands, Natal, PNA.
135. P. Viljoen (Secretary for Agriculture), cabinet memo "Control of the Tsetse Fly: Payment of Bonus to R. H. T. P. Harris," May 1940, file 2/493, box 545, Treasury Department Papers, PNA;
136. Anon., "R. Harris Interview," Farmers Weekly, 1941, 62, 952-55.
137. J. S. Henkel to Provincial Secretary Natal, 3 August 1934 and 10 October 1935, as well as his "Report on the Plant and Animal Ecology of the Hluhluwe Game Reserve with Special Reference to Tsetse Flies," 1937, File 8/3516, Box 499, Natal Provincial Secretary Papers, PAR;
138. J. S. Henkel and A. W. Bayer, "Report of Investigation on the Relationship of Vegetation to Tsetse Fly in the Hluhluwe Game Reserve," submitted to the 1935 Game Commission, file 12/3/3, box 84, OVIA.
139. Anon., "Eradication of the Tsetse Fly," Natal Mercury, 12 October 1935, 5;
140. P. J. du Toit to the Acting Provincial Secretary, Natal, 24 August 1937, file 13/9187, Box 898, Natal Provincial Secretary Papers, PAR.
141. J. K. Chorley to the Department of Agriculture and Lands, Southern Rhodesia, 1 June 1944, file 11/9/1/1, box 71, OVIA.
142. G. de Kock (Deputy Director of Onderstepoort), "The Tsetse Flies of South Africa," paper presented at Pretoria University, 28 June 1946, file 13/9187, box 898, Natal Provincial Secretary Papers, PAR;
143. H. O. Monnig, Veterinary Helminthology and Entomology: The Diseases of Domesticated Animals Caused by Helminth and Arthropod Parasites (London: Bailliere, Tindall & Cox, 1947), 336-44.
144. E. Warren to R. Harris, 8 September 1924, Ernest Warren Papers, NMP.
145. H. O. Monnig (Parasitologist at Onderstepoort), "Report on a visit to Zululand, 9-16 August 1941," file FZ1001 (1), box 4839, South African Department of Agriculture Papers, PNA;
146. E. Kluge to P. J. du Toit, 20 January 1942, file 11/6/2, box 70, OVIA;
147. G. de Kock to W. Power (Provincial Council, Pietermaritzburg), 3 April 1944, file 11/6/ 2, box 70, OVIA;
148. Du Toit, "Trypanosomiasis in Zululand."
149. G. de Kock to P. J. du Toit, 25 March 1944, file 11/9/1/1, box 71, OVIA;
150. Du Toit, "Trypanosomiasis in Zululand," 318.
151. Cranefield, Science and Empire;
152. A. M. Diesel, "The Campaign against East Coast Fever in South Africa," Onderstepoort J. Vet. Sci. Anim. Industry, 1948, 23, 19-31.
153. Anon., "Interview with René du Toit" (entitled "The Atomic Bomb of the Insect World: Plans to Exterminate the Tsetse, Blowfly and Arsenic-Resistant Tick with D.D.T."), Farmers Weekly, 1945, 70, 168-69;
154. R. du Toit, "Second Line Attack on Nagana," Farmers Weekly, 1946, 71, 2329;
155. this author's interview with Errol Nevill, former head of the Department of Entomology, Onderstepoort Veterinary Institute, 5 February 2003.
156. G. de Kock to W. Powell, 20 March 1945, file 11/6/1, box 70, OVIA;
157. G. de Kock, "The Tsetse Flies of South Africa," file 13/9187, box 898, Natal Provincial Secretary Papers, PAR;
158. Du Toit, "Second Line Attack on Nagana;" Du Toit, "Trypanosomiasis in Zululand."
159. R. du Toit's report for 14 December 1945 and 24 January 1946, file 11/9/7, box 72, OVIA;
160. P. Buxton, The Natural History of Tsetse Flies: An Account of the Biology of the Genus Glossina (diptera) (London: School of Tropical Medicine, Memoir 10, 1955), 531-33;
161. R. du Toit, "The Eradication of the Tsetse Fly (Glossina pallidipes) from Zululand, Union of South Africa," in Advances in Veterinary Science, ed. C. A. Brandly and E. L. Jungherr (New York: Academic Press, 1959), 227-40.
162. P. J. du Toit, "DDT and the Aeroplane in the Control of the Tsetse Fly and Trypanosomiasis in South Africa," Nature, 1947, 160, 475-86;
163. R. Alexander (Director of Veterinary Research), "Annual Report for 1950," 6 January 1951, file 1/2/1, box 2, OVIA;
164. Buxton, Natural History.
165. G. de Kock to P. J. du Toit, 18 January 1946, file 11/9/7, box 72, OVIA;
166. R. Alexander, "Annual Report 1 July 1953-30 June 1954" at http://www.nda.agric.za/ vetweb/History/H_History_Main.htm, Department of Agriculture, South Africa [accessed 3 March 2004].
167. A. Jordan, Trypanosomiasis Control and African Rural Development (London: Longman, 1986).
168. Notes from meeting of the Northern Zululand and Hluhluwe Farmers Association Meeting, Hluhluwe, 16 September 1946, file 13/3/20, box 94, OVIA;
169. G. de Kock, Radio Broadcast, 4 January 1949, file Z1001/5, box 48484, South African Department of Agriculture Papers, PNA;
170. File note, "Vergadering te Empangeni," 16 May 1949, file 13/ 3/20/1, box 94, OVIA;
171. J. Quin (Director of Veterinary Research), "Future Policy Concerning the Nagana Campaign in Zululand," 17 February 1950, file 11 B (P), box 68, OVIA;
172. Anon., "Natal Agricultural Union Meeting Notes," 5 August 1952, file 13/3/20/ 1, box 94, OVIA.
173. Du Toit, "Trypanosomiasis in Zululand" and "The Eradication of the Tsetse Fly;"
174. J. Quin (Director of Veterinary Research), "Future Policy concerning the Nagana Campaign in Zululand," 17 February 1950, file 11 B (P), box 68, OVIA.
175. C. Laveissière, G. A. Vale, and J. P. Gouteux, "Bait Methods for Tsetse Control," in Appropriate Technology in Vector Control, ed. C. F. Curtis (Boca Raton: CRC Press Inc., 1990), 48-74;
176. K. Kappmeier, E. M. Nevill, and R. J. Bagnall, "Review of Tsetse Flies and Trypanosomosis Control in South Africa," Onderstepoort J. Vet. Res., 1998, 65, 195-203;
177. K. Kappmeier and E. M. Nevill, "Evaluation of Coloured Targets for the Attraction of Glossina brevipalpis and Glossina austeni (Diptera Glossinidae) in South Africa," Onderstepoort J. Vet. Res., 1999, 66, 291-305; this author's interviews with the entomologists Karin Kappmeier Green and Errol Nevill, Onderstepoort Veterinary Institute, 4 and 5 February 2003.