Antimicrobial activity of copper and zinc accumulated in eastern oyster amebocytes

Journal of Shellfish Research

Volumn 23, Issue 2, 2004, Pages 321-351

  Fisher, William S ^a  

^a U S ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY   (United States)

Author keywords

Amebocytes; Contaminants; Copper; Crassostrea virginica; Hemocytes; Immunomodulation; Immunosuppression; Internal defense; Leucocytes; Marine bivalves; Metal toxicity; Metals; Oysters; Sentinel species; Zinc

Indexed keywords

ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITY; BIOACCUMULATION; COPPER; POPULATION DISTRIBUTION; RUNOFF; SHELLFISH; ZINC;

BIVALVIA; CRASSOSTREA VIRGINICA; OSTREIDAE;

EID: 4644317496     PISSN: 07308000     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (251)

1. Abbe, G. R. 1982. Growth, mortality, and copper-nickel accumulation by oysters (Crassostrea virginica) at the Morgantown Stam Electric Station on the Potomac River, Maryland. J. Shellfish Res. 2:3-13.
2. Abbe, G. R., G. F. Reidel & J. G. Sanders. 2000. Factors that influence the accumulation of copper and cadmium by transplanted eastern oysters (Crassostrea virginica) in the Patuxent River, Maryland. Mar. Environ. Res. 49:377-396.
3. Abbe, G. R. & J. G. Sanders. 1986. Condenser replacement in a coastal power plant: copper uptake and incorporation in the American oyster, Crassostrea virginica. Mar. Environ. Res. 19:93-113.
4. Acton, R. T., E. E. Evans & J. C. Bennett. 1969. Immunological capabilities of the oyster Crassostrea virginica. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 29: 149-160.
5. Alexander, G. V. & R. H. Rowland. 1966. Estimation of zinc-65 background levels for marine coastal waters. Nature 210:155-157.
6. Alvarez, M. R. & F. E. Friedl. 1992. Effect of a fungicide on in vitro hemocyte viability, phagocytosis and attachment in the American oyster Crassostrea virginica. Aquaculture 107:135-140.
7. Alvarez, M. R., F. E. Friedl & C. M. Hudson. 1991. Effect of a commercial fungicide on the viability and phagocytosis of hemocytes of the American oyster, Crassostrea virginica. J. Invertebtr. Pathol. 57:395-401.
8. Anderson, R. S. 1975. Phagocytosis by invertebrate cells in vitro: Biochemical events and other characteristics compared with vertebrate phagocytic systems. In: K. Maramorsch & R. E. Shope, editors. Invertebrate Immunity. New York: Academic Press. p. 365.
9. Anderson, R. S. 1996. Interactions of Perkinsus marinus with humoral factors and hemocytes of Crassostrea virginica. J. Shellfish Res. 15: 127-134.
10. Anderson, R. S., L. L. Brubacher, L. Ragone Calvo, E. M. Burreson & M. A. Unger. 1997. Effect of in vitro exposure to tributyltin on generation of oxygen metabolites by oyster hemocytes. Environ. Res. 74: 84-90.
11. Anderson, R. S., L. L. Brubacher, L. Ragone Calvo, M. A. Unger & E. M. Burreson. 1998. Effects of tributyltin and hypoxia on the progression of Perkinsus marinus infections and host defense mechanisms in oyster, Crassostrea virginica (Gmelin). J. Fish Diseases 21:371-380.
12. Anderson, R. S., L. M. Mora & S. A. Thomson. 1994. Modulation of oyster (Crassostrea virginica) hemocyte immune function by copper, as measured by luminol-enhanced chemiluminescence. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 108C:215-220.
13. Anderson, R. S., L. M. Oliver & D. Jacobs. 1992. Immunotoxicity of cadmium for the eastern oyster [Crassostrea virginica (Gmelin, 1791)]: effects on hemocyte chemiluminescence. J. Shellfish Res. 11:31-35.
14. Anderson, R. S., M. A. Unger & E. M. Burreson. 1996. Enhancement of Perkinsus marinus disease progression in TBT-exposed oysters (Crassostrea virginica). Mar. Environ. Res. 42:177-180.
15. Andrews, J. D. 1988. Epizootiology of the disease caused by the oyster pathogen Perkinsus marinus and its effects on the oyster industry. Amer. Fish. Soc. Spec. Publ. 18:47-63.
16. Andrews, J. D. & S. M. Ray. 1988. Management strategies to control the disease caused by Perkinsus marinus. Amer. Fish. Soc. Spec. Publ. 18:257-264.
17. Asokan, R., M. Arumugam & P. Mullainadhan. 1997. Activation of prophenoloxidase in the plasma and hemocytes of the marine mussel Perna viridis Linnaeus. Dev. Comp. Immunol. 21:1-12.
18. Atkinson, P. G. P. & C. H. Barton. 1998. Ectopic expression of Nramp1 in COS-1 cells modulates iron accumulation. FEBS Letters 425:239-242.
19. Baier-Anderson, C. & R. S. Anderson. 1997. The effect of pentachlorophenol on pyridine nucleotide production in oyster hemocytes: NADPH and immunomodulation. J. Shellfish Res. 16:111-114.
20. Baier-Anderson, C. & R. S. Anderson. 2000. Immunotoxicity of environmental pollutants in marine invertebrates. In: M. Fingerman & R. Nagabhushanam, editors. Recent advances in marine biotechnology, vol. 5, Immunobiology and Pathology. Enfield, USA; Plymouth, UK: Science Publishers, Inc. pp. 189-225.
21. Bang, F. B. 1961. Reaction to injury in the oyster (Crassostrea virginica). Biol. Bull. 121:57-68.
22. Bang, F. B. 1973. A survey of phagocytosis as a protective mechanism against disease among invertebrates. In: W. Braun & J. Ungar, editors. "Non-Specific" Factors Influencing Host Resistance. Basel, Switzerland: S. Karger. pp. 2-10.
23. Beaven, A. E. & K. T. Paynter. 1999. Acidification of the phagosome in Crassostrea virginica hemocytes following engulfment of Zymosan. Biol. Bull. 196:26-33.
24. Beaven, G. F. 1955. Various aspects of oyster setting in Maryland. Proc. Nat. Shellfish. Assoc. (1954) 45:29-37.
25. Bernard, F. R. 1989. Uptake and elimination of coliform bacteria by four marine bivalve mollusks. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 46:1592-1599.
26. Berrigan, M., T. Candies, J. Cirino, R. Dugas, C. Dyer, J. Gray, T. Herrington, W. Keithly, R. Leard, J. R. Nelson & M. Van Hoose. 1991. The oyster fishery of the Gulf of Mexico, United States: a regional management plan. Ocean Springs, MA: Gulf States Marine Fisheries Commission, pp. 5-20.
27. Bizio. 1845. Transactions of the Institute of Venice. Cited from Lankester 1886.
28. Blake, P. A., M. H. Merson, R. E. Weaver, D. G. Hollis & P. C. Heublein. 1979. Disease caused by a marine vibrio. N. Engl. J. Med. 300:1-7.
29. Blake, P. A., R. E. Weaver & D. G. Mollis. 1980. Diseases of humans (other than cholera) caused by vibrios. Ann. Rev. Microbiol. 34:341-367.
30. Bodansky, M. 1920. Biochemical studies on marine organisms. II. The occurrence of zinc. J. Biol. Chem. 44(2):399-407.
31. Boyce, R. & W. A. Herdman. 1897. On a green leucocytosis in oysters associated with the presence of copper in the leucocytes. Proc. Royal Society London 62:30-38.
32. Boyden, C. R. 1975. Distribution of some trace metals in Poole Harbor, Dorset. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 6:180-187.
33. Boyden, C. R. & D. J. H. Phillips. 1981. Seasonal variation and inherent variability of trace elements in oysters and their implications for indicator studies. Mar. Ecol. Progr. Ser. 5:29-40.
34. Boyden, C. R. & M. G. Romeril. 1974. A trace metal problem in pond oyster culture. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 5:74-78.
35. Bradley, H. C. 1904. The occurrence of zinc in certain invertebrates. Science xix(474):196-197.
36. Brooks, R. R. & M. G. Rumsby. 1965. The biogeochemistry of trace element uptake by some New Zealand bivalves. Limnol. Oceanogr. 10:521-528.
37. Brown, R. S. 1975. Evidence for metal-protein complexes precipitating around blood cells as the mechanism of extracellular blood clotting in the American oyster Crassostrea virginica (Gmelin). Ph.D. dissertation, Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University. 106 pp.
38. Bryan, G. W. & W. J. Langston. 1992. Bioavailability, accumulation and effects of heavy metals in sediments with special reference to United Kingdom estuaries: a review. Environ. Pollut. 76:89-131.
39. Burreson, E. M., M. E. Robinson & A. Villalba. 1988. A comparison of paraffin histology and hemolymph analysis for the diagnosis of Haplosporidium nelsoni (MSX) in Crassostrea virginica. (Gmelin). J. Shellfish Res. 7:19-23.
40. Butler, R. A. & G. Roesijadi. 2001. Disruption of metallothionein expression with antisense oligonucleotides abolishes protection against cadmium cytotoxicity in molluscan hemocytes. Toxicol. Sci. 59:101-107.
41. Cake, E. W., Jr. 1983. Habitat suitability index models: Gulf of Mexico American oyster. US Fish Wildlife Service, FWS/OBS-82/10.57. 37 pp.
42. Calabrese, A., R. S. Collier, D. A. Nelson & J. R. MacInnes. 1973. Toxicity of heavy metals to embryos of the American oyster Crassostrea virginica. Mar. Biol. 18:162-166.
43. Calabrese, A., J. R. MacInnes, D. A. Nelson & J. E. Miller. 1977. Survival and growth of bivalve larvae under heavy-metal stress. Mar. Biol. 41:179-184.
44. Carballal, M. J., C. Lopez, C. Azevedo & A. Villalba. 1997. Enzymes involved in defense functions of hemocytes of mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis. J. Invertebr. Pathol. 70:96-105.
45. Cheng, T. C. 1967. Marine molluscs as hosts for symbioses: with a review of known parasites of commercially important species. Adv. Mar. Biol. 5:14-24.
46. Cheng, T. C. 1975. Functional morphology and biochemistry of molluscan phagocytes. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 266:343-379.
47. Cheng, T. C. 1977. Biochemical and ultrastructural evidence for the double role of phagocytosis in molluscs: defense and nutrition. In: L. A. Bulla, Jr., & T. C. Cheng, editors. Comparative pathobiology, vol 3. Invertebrate immune responses. New York; and London: Plenum Press. pp. 21-30.
48. Cheng, T. C. 1981. Bivalves. In: N. A. Ratcliffe & A. F. Rowley, editors. Invertebrate blood cells. London: Academic Press. pp. 233-300.
49. Cheng, T. C. 1983. Internal defense mechanisms of molluscs against invading microorganisms: personal reminiscences. Trans. Amer. Microscop. Soc. 102:185-193.
50. Cheng, T. C. (editor) 1984. Comparative Pathobiology Vol 6: Invertebrate Blood; Cells and Serum Factors. New York (USA) and London (England): Plenum Press. 211 pp.
51. Cheng, T. C. 1988a. In vivo effects of heavy metals on cellular defense mechanisms of Crassostrea virginica: total and differential cell counts. J. Invertebr. Pathol. 51:207-214.
52. Cheng, T. C. 1988b. In vivo effects of heavy metals on cellular defense mechanisms of Crassostrea virginica: phagocytic and endocytotic indices. J. Invertebr. Pathol. 51:215-220.
53. Cheng, T. C. 1996. Hemocytes: forms and functions. In: V. S. Kennedy, R. I. E. Newell, & A. F. Eble, editors. The Eastern Oyster Crassostrea virginica. College Park, Maryland (USA): Maryland Sea Grant College program, University of Maryland System. pp. 299-333.
54. Cheng, T. C. & A. Cali. 1974. An electron microscope study of the fate of bacteria phagocytized by granulocytes of Crassostrea virginica. Contemp. Topics Immunobiol. 4:25-35.
55. Cheng, T. C. & E. Rifkin. 1970. Cellular reactions in marine molluscs in response to helminth parasitism. In: S. F. Snieszko, editor. A symposium on diseases of fishes and shellfishes, vol. 5. Washington, D. C. (USA): Amer. Fish. Soc. Symp. pp. 443-496.
56. 14C-labelled bacteria in the American oyster, Crassostrea virginica. J. Invertebr. Pathol. 27:259-262.
57. Cheng, T. C. & J. T. Sullivan. 1984. Effects of heavy metals on phagocytosis by molluscan hemocytes. Mar. Environ. Res. 14:305-315.
58. Cheng, T. C., G. E. Rodrick, D. A. Foley & S. A. Koehler. 1975. Release of lysozyme from hemolymph cells of Mercenaria mercenaria during phagocytosis. J. Invertebr. Pathol. 25:261-265.
59. Chipman, W. A., T. R. Rice & T. J. Price. 1958. Uptake and accumulation of radioactive zinc by marine plankton, fish, and shellfish. US Fish Wild Serv. Fish Bull. 58:278-292.
60. Chu, F.-L. E. 1988. Humoral defense factors in marine bivalves. Amer. Fish. Soc. Spec. Publ. 18:178-188.
61. Chu, F.-L. E. 2000. Defense mechanisms of marine bivalves. In: M. Fingerman & R. Nagabhushanam, editors. Recent advances in marine biotechnology, Vol. 5. Immunobiology and pathology. Enfield USA; Plymouth, UK: Science Publishers. pp. 1-42.
62. Chu, F.-L. E. & K. H. Greene. 1989. Effect of temperature and salinity on in vitro culture of the oyster pathogen, Perkinsus marinus (Apicomplexa: Perkinsea). J. Invertebr. Pathol. 53:260-268.
63. Chu, F.-L. E. & R. C. Hale. 1994. Relationship between pollution and susceptibility to infectious disease in the eastern oyster Crassostrea virginica. Mar. Environ. Res. 38:243-256.
64. Chu, F.-L. E., J. F. La Peyre & C. S. Burreson. 1993. Perkinsus marinus infection and potential defense-related activities in eastern oysters, Crassostrea virginica: salinity effects. J. Invertebr. Pathol. 62:226-232.
65. Coles, J. A. & R. A. Pipe. 1994. Phenoloxidase activity in the haemolymph and haemocytes of the marine mussel Mytilus edulis. Fish Shellfish Immunol. 4:337-352.
66. Coombs, T. L. 1972. The distribution of zinc in the oyster Ostrea edulis and its relation to enzymic activity and to other metals. Mar. Biol. 12:170-178.
67. Copeland, B. J. & H. D. Hoese. 1966. Growth and mortality of the American oyster, Crassostrea virginica, in high salinity shallow bays in central Texas. Publ. Inst. Mar. Sci. Univ. Texas 11:149-158.
68. Cuénot, L. 1891. Études sur le sang et les glandes lymphatiques dans la série animale (2 Portie: Invertebres). Arch. Z. Exper. 9:19-54.
69. Daniels, N. A., B. Ray, A. Easton, N. Marano, E. Kahn, A. McShan, L. Del Rosario, T. Baldwin, M. Kingsley, N. Puhr, J. Wells, D. Cameron, P. Griffin, R. Tauxe & F. Angulo. 1999. Large multistate outbreak of oyster-associated Vibrio parahaemolyticus infections: emergence of virulent serotype highlights prevention quandary. J. Gen. Intern. Med. 14:23.
70. Deaton, L. E. & J. R. Dankert. 1998. Phenoloxidase activity in the hemolymph of the molluscs Geukensia demissa and Mercenaria mercenaria. J. Shellfish Res. 17:323.
71. DesVoigne, D. M. & A. K. Sparks. 1968. The process of wound healing in the Pacific oyster, Crassostrea gigas. J. Invertebr. Pathol. 12:53-65.
72. Duke, T. W. 1967. Possible routes of zinc 65 from an experimental estuarine environment to man. J. Water Poll. Cont. Fed. 39:536-542.
73. Feng, J. S. 1966. The fate of a virus, Staphylococcus aureus phage 80, injected into the oyster, Crassostrea virginica. J. Invertebr. Pathol. 8:496-504.
74. Feng, S. Y. 1958. Observations on the distribution and elimination of spores of Nematopsis ostrearum in oysters. Proc. Nat. Shellfish. Assoc. 48:162-173.
75. Feng, S. Y. 1966. Experimental bacterial infection in the oyster Crassostrea virginica. Invertebr. Pathol. 8:505-511.
76. Feng, S. Y. 1967. Responses of molluscs to foreign bodies, with special reference to the oyster. Fed. Proc. 26:1685-1692.
77. Feng, S. Y. 1988. Cellular defense mechanisms of oysters and mussels. Amer. Fish. Soc. Spec. Publ. 18:153-168.
78. Feng, S. Y., J. S. Feng, C. N. Burke & L. H. Khairallah. 1971. Light and electron microscopy of the leuococytes of Crassostrea virginica (Mollusca: Pelecypoda). Z. Zellforsch. 120:222-245.
79. Feng, S. Y., J. S. Feng & T. Yamasu. 1977. Roles of Mytilus coruscus and Crassostrea gigas blood cells in defense and nutrition. In: L. A. Bulla, Jr., & T. C. Cheng, editors. Comparative pathobiology, vol 3, Invertebrate Immune Responses. New York: and London: Plenum Press. pp. 31-67.
80. Fisher, W. S. 1986. Structure and functions of oyster hemocytes. In: M. Brehelin, editor. Immunity in invertebrates. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. pp. 25-35.
81. Fisher, W. S. 1988. Environmental influence on bivalve hemocyte function. Amer. Fish. Soc. Spec. Publ. 18:225-237.
82. Fisher, W. S. 2004. Relationship of amebocytes and terrestrial elements to adult shell deposition in eastern oysters. J. Shellfish Res. 23.
83. Fisher, W. S., M. M. Chintala & M. A. Moline. 1989. Annual variation of estuarine and oceanic oyster Crassostrea virginica Gmelin hemocyte capacity. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 127:105-120.
84. Fisher, W. S. & R. I. E. Newell. 1986. Salinity effects on the activity of granular hemocytes of American oysters, Crassostrea virginica. Biol. Bull. 170:122-134.
85. Fisher, W. S., L. M. Oliver & P. Edwards. 1996. Hematologic and serologic variability of eastern oysters from Apalachicola Bay, Florida. J. Shellfish Res. 15:555-564.
86. Fisher, W. S., L. M. Oliver, W. W. Walker, S. Manning & T. Lytle. 1999. Decreased resistance of eastern oysters (Crassostrea virginica) to a protozoan pathogen (Perkinsus marinus) after sublethal exposure to tributyltin oxide. Mar. Environ. Res. 47:185-201.
87. Fisher, W. S., L. M. Oliver, J. T. Winstead & E. R. Long. 2000. A survey of oysters Crassostrea virginica from Tampa Bay, Florida: Associations of internal defenses with contaminant burdens. Aquat. Toxicol. 51:115-138.
88. Fisher, W. S., L. M. Oliver, J. T. Winstead & A. K. Volety. 2003. Stimulation of defense factors in eastern oysters deployed to contaminated sites in Pensacola Bay, Florida. Aquat. Toxicol. 64:375-391.
89. Fisher, W. S. & M. L. Tamplin. 1988. Environmental influence on activity and foreign-particle binding by hemocytes of American oysters, Crassostrea virginica. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 45:1309-1315.
90. Fisher, W. S., A. Wishkovsky & F.-L. E. Chu. 1990. Effects of tributyltin on defense related activities of oyster hemocytes. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 19:354-360.
91. Fitzgerald, B. W. & D. M. Skauen. 1963. Zinc-65 in oysters in Fishers Island Sound and its estuaries. In: V. Schultze & A. W. Klement, editors. Radioecology. New York: Reinhold. pp. 159-162.
92. Foley, D. A. & T. C. Cheng. 1975. A quantitative study of phagocytosis by hemolymph cells of the pelecypods Crassostrea virginica and Mercenaria mercenaria. J. Invertebr. Pathol. 25:189-197.
93. Foley, D. A. & T. C. Cheng. 1977. Degranulation and other changes in molluscan granulocytes associated with phagocytosis. J. Invertebr. Pathol. 29:321-325.
94. Ford, S. E. 1985. Effects of salinity on survival of the MSX parasite Haplosporidium nelsoni (Haskin, Stauber, and Mackin) in oysters. J. Shellfish Res. 5:85-90.
95. Ford, S. E. 1996. Range extension by the oyster parasite Perkinsus marinus into the northeastern United States: response to climate change? J. Shellfish Res. 15:45-56.
96. Ford, S. E. & H. H. Haskin. 1988. Management strategies for MSX (Haplosporidium nelsoni) disease in eastern oysters. Amer. Fish. Soc. Spec. Publ. 18:249-256.
97. Ford, S. E. & S. A. Kanaley. 1988. An evaluation of hemolymph diagnosis for the detection of the oyster parasite Haplosporidium nelsoni (MSX). J. Shellfish Res. 7:11-18.
98. Frazier, J. M. 1975. The dynamics of metals in the American oyster, Crassostrea virginica. I. Seasonal effects. Chesapeake Sci. 16:162-171.
99. Frazier, J. M. 1976. The dynamics of metals in the American oyster, Crassostrea virginica. II. Environmental effects. Chesapeake Sci. 17: 188-197.
100. Fries, C. R. & M. R. Tripp. 1970. Uptake of viral particles by oyster leucocytes in vitro. J. Invertebr. Pathol. 15:136-137.
101. Gaillon, B. 1824. Sur la cause de la coloration des huitres et sur les animacules qui servent a leur nutrition. Memoires de la Societe Linneene du Calvados, pp. 135-158.
102. Galtsoff, P. S. 1938. Shellfish investigations. In: E. Higgins, compiler. Progress in biological inquiries 1937 Washington DC: US Government Printing Office, U. S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Fisheries Administrative Report No. 30. pp. 42-52.
103. Galtsoff, P. S. 1953. Accumulation of manganese, iron, copper and zinc in the body of American oysters (Crassostrea) Ostrea virginica. Anat. Rec. 117:601-602.
104. Galtsoff, P. S. 1964. The American oyster Crassostrea virginica Gmelin. Fish. Bull. 64:1-480.
105. Galtsoff, P. S. & D. V. Whipple. 1930. Oxygen consumption of normal and green oysters. US Department of Commerce. Bull. Bureau Fisheries XLVI:488-508.
106. Genthner, F. J., A. K. Volety, L. M. Oliver & W. S. Fisher. 1999. Factors influencing in vitro killing of bacteria by hemocytes of the eastern oyster (Crassostrea virginica). Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 65:3015-3020.
107. George, S. G., B. J. S. Pirie, A. R. Cheyne, T. L. Coombs & P. T. Grant. 1978. Detoxication of metals by marine bivalves: an ultrastructural study of the compartmentation of copper and zinc in the oyster Ostrea edulis. Mar. Biol. 45:147-156.
108. Gordon, M., G. A. Knauer & J. H. Martin. 1980. Mytilus californianus as a bioindicator of trace metal pollution: variability and statistical considerations. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 11:195-198.
109. Gregoire, C. 1970. Haemolymph coagulation in arthropods. Symp. Zool. Soc. Lond. 27:45-74.
110. Greig, R. A. & D. R. Wenzloff. 1978. Metal accumulation and depuration by the American oyster, Crassostrea virginica. Bull. Environm. Contam. Toxicol. 20:499-504.
111. Gunter, G. & R. A. Geyer. 1955. Studies of fouling organisms in the northwestern Gulf of Mexico. Publ. Inst. Mar. Sci. Univ. Texas 4(1): 39-67.
112. Hargis, W. J. & D. S. Haven. 1999. Chesapeake oyster reefs, their importance, destruction and guidelines for restoring them. In: M. W. Luckenbach, R. Mann & J. A. Wesson, editors. Oyster reef habitat restoration: a synopsis and synthesis of approaches. Gloucester Point, Virginia: Virginia Institute of Marine Science Press. pp. 329-358.
113. Harris-Young, L., M. L. Tamplin, W. S. Fisher & J. W. Mason. 1993. Effects of physicochemical factors and bacterial colony morphotype on association of Vibrio vulnificus with hemocytes of Crassostrea virginica. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 59:1012-1017.
114. Harris-Young, L., M. L. Tamplin, J. W. Mason, H. C. Aldrich & J. K. Jackson. 1995. Viability of Vibrio vulnificus in association with hemocytes of the American oyster (Crassostrea virginica). Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 61:52-57.
115. Haskin, H. H. & J. D. Andrews. 1988. Uncertainties and speculations about the life cycle of the eastern oyster pathogen Haplosporidium nelsoni (MSX). Amer. Fish. Soc. Spec. Publ. 18:5-22.
116. Herdman, W. A. 1896. Investigations on oysters and disease. Report for 1895 on the Lancashire Sea-Fisheries Laboratory, Transactions. Liverpool Biol. Soc. 10:158-177.
117. Herdman, W. A. & R. Boyce. 1899. Oysters and disease. an account of certain observations upon the normal and pathological histology and bacteriology of the oyster and other shellfish. London: Lancashire Sea-Fisheries Memoir No. 1. 8 plates. 60 pp.
118. Hillman, R. E. 1968. Histochemistry of mucosubstances in the mantle of the clam, Mercenaria mercenaria. I: a glycosaminoglycan in the first marginal fold. Trans. Amer. Microsc. Soc. 87:361-367.
119. Hillman, R. E. 1969. Histochemistry of mucosubstances in the mantle of the clam, Mercenaria mercenaria. II. Mucosubstances in the second marginal fold. Trans. Amer. Microsc. Soc. 88:420-425.
120. Hillman, R. E. 1978. Invertebrate mucus: model systems for studying diseases in man. In: P. N. Kaul & C. J. Sindermann, editors. Drugs and food from the sea myth or reality? Norman, Oklahoma (USA): Univ. Oklahoma. pp. 17-25.
121. Hiltner, R. S. & H. J. Wichmann. 1919. Zinc in oysters. J. Biol. Chem. 38:205-221.
122. Hinsch, G. W. & M. Hunte. 1990. Ultrastructure of phagocytosis by hemocytes of the American oyster. In: F. O. Perkins & T. C. Cheng, editors. Pathology in marine science. San Diego, CA: Academic Press. pp. 479-488.
123. Hopkins, S. H. 1956. The boring sponges which attack South Carolina oysters, with notes on some associated organisms. Contrib. Bears Bluff Laboratories, no. 23. Wadmalaw Island, SC: Bears Bluff Laboratories. 30 pp.
124. Hunter, A. C. & C. W. Harrison. 1928. Bacteriology and chemistry of oysters, with special reference to regulatory control of production, handling, and shipment. Washington, D.C: US Department of Agriculture technical bulletin, No. 64. pp. 1-75.
125. Ikuta, K. 1958a. Studies on accumulation of heavy metals in aquatic organisms -II. On accumulation of copper and zinc in oysters. Bull. Jap. Soc. Sci. Fish. 34:112-116.
126. Ikuta, K. 1958b. Studies on accumulation of heavy metals in aquatic organisms -III. On accumulation of copper and zinc in the parts of oysters. Bull. Jap. Soc. Sci. Fish. 34:117-122.
127. Jabado, N., A. Jankowski, S. Dougaparsad, V. Picard, S. Grinstein & P. Gros. 2000. Natural resistance to intracellular infections: natural resistance-associated macrophage protein 1 (nramp1) functions as a pH-dependent manganese transporter at the phagosomal membrane. J. Exp. Med. 192:1237-1247.
128. Jarinen, A. W. & G. T. Ankley. 1999. Linkage of effects to tissue residues: development of a comprehensive database for aquatic organisms exposed to inorganic and organic chemicals. Pensacola FL: Society for Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry.
129. Jones, S. H., T. L. Howell & K. O'Neill. 1991. Differential elimination of indicator bacteria and pathogenic Vibrio sp. from eastern oysters (Crassostrea virginica Gmelin, 1791) in a commercial controlled purification facility in Maine. J. Shellfish Res. 10:105-112.
130. Jiann, K.-T. & B. J. Presley. 1997. Variations in trace metal concentrations in American oysters (Crassostrea virginica) collected from Galveston Bay, Texas. Estuaries 20:710-724.
131. Kelly, C. B. & W. Arcisz. 1954. Survival of enteric organisms in shellfish. U S Pub. Health Rep. 69:1205-1210.
132. Knezovich, J. P. 1994. Chemical and biological factors affecting bioavailability of contaminants in seawater. In: J. L. Hamelink, P. F. Landrum, H. L. Bergman, & W. H. Benson, editors. Bioavailability: physical, chemical, and biological interactions. Ann Arbor, Michigan: Lewis Publishers. pp. 23-30.
133. Kopfler, F. C. & J. Mayer. 1969. Studies on trace metals in shellfish. In: R. J. Hammerstrom & W. F. Hill, Jr., editors. Proceedings gulf and south Atlantic States Shellfish Sanitation Research Conference. Cincinnati, Ohio: US Dept. Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service. pp. 67-80.
134. Kopfler, F. C. & J. Mayer. 1973. Concentrations of five trace metals in the waters and oysters (Crassostrea virginica) of Mobile Bay, Alabama. Proc. Nat. Shellfish. Assoc. 63:27-34.
135. Korringa, P. 1952. Recent advances in oyster biology. Qtr. Rev. Biol. 27(3):266-308.
136. Kramer, T. R. & W. T. Johnson. 1992. Copper and immunity. In: S. Cunningham-Rundles, editor. Nutrient modulation of the immune response. New York: Marcel Dekker Inc. pp. 239-254.
137. Lankester, E. R. 1886. On green oysters. Qtr. J. Microscop. Sci. pp. 71-94, plus 7 plates.
138. Larson, K. G., B. S. Roberson & F. M. Hetrick. 1989. Effect of environmental pollutants on the chemiluminescence of hemocytes from the American oyster Crassostrea virginica. Dis. Aquat. Org. 6:131-136.
139. La Peyre, M. K., A. D. Nickens, A. K. Volety, S. G. Tolley & J. F. La Peyre. 2003. Environmental significance of freshets in reducing Perkinsus marinus infections in eastern oysters (Crassostrea virginica): potential management implications. Mar. Ecol. Progr. Sci: 248:165-176.
140. Lobel, P. B. & D. A. Wright. 1983. Frequency distribution of zinc in Mytilus edulis (L.). Estuaries 6:154-159.
141. Long, E. R., D. MacDonald & C. Cairncross. 1991. Status and trends in toxicants and the potential for their biological effects in Tampa Bay, Florida. NOAA Technical Memorandum NOS OMA 58, Seattle, WA. 77 pp.
142. Long, E. R., D. A. Wolfe, R. S. Carr, K. J. Scott, G. B. Thursby, H. L. Windom, R. Lee, F. D. Calder, G. M. Sloane. & T. Seal. 1994. Magnitude and extent of sediment toxicity in Tampa Bay, Florida. NOAA Technical Memorandum NOS ORCA 78. Silver Spring, MD: US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 138 pp.
143. Loosanoff, V. L. 1949. On the food selectivity of oysters. Science 110:122.
144. Loosanoff, V. L. 1955. How to increase production of seed oysters in Connecticut. Proc. Nat. Shellfish. Assoc. (1954) 45:19-22.
145. Lunz, G. R. 1955. The general pattern of oyster setting in South Carolina. Proc. Nat. Shellfish. Assoc. (1954) 45:47-51.
146. Lytle, T. F. & J. S. Lytle. 1990. Heavy metals in the eastern oyster, Crassostrea virginica, of the Mississippi Sound. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 44:142-148.
147. Mackin, J. G. 1951. Histopathology of infection of Crassostrea virginica (Gmelin) by Dermocystidium marinum Mackin, Owen and Collier. Bull. Mar. Sci. Gulf Caribb. 1:72-87.
148. MacInnes, J. R. 1980-81. Response of embryos of the American oyster, Crassostrea virginica, to heavy metal mixtures. Mar. Environ. Res. pp. 217-227.
149. McCain, B. B., D. W. Brown, T. Hom, M. S. Myers, S. M. Pierce, T. K. Collier, J. E. Stein, S.-L. Chan & U. Varanasi. 1996. Chemical contaminant exposure and effects in four fish species from Tampa Bay, Florida. Estuaries 19:86-104.
150. McDade, J. E. & M. R. Tripp. 1967. Lysozyme in the hemolymph of the oyster, Crassostrea virginica. J. Invertebr. Pathol. 9:531-535.
151. Mendel, L. B. & H. C. Bradley. 1905. Experimental studies on the physiology of the molluscs - second paper. Amer. J. Physiol. xiv:313-327.
152. Mendel, L. B. & H. C. Bradley. 1906-07. Experimental studies on the physiology of the molluscs. Amer. J. Physiol. xvii:167.
153. Menzel, R. W. 1955. Some phases of the biology of Ostrea equestris Say and a comparison with Crassostrea virginica (Gmelin). Publs. Inst. Mar. Sci. Univ. Texas 4:73-148.
154. Menzel, R. W., N. C. Hulings & R. R. Hathaway. 1966. Oyster abundance in Apalachicola Bay, Florida in relation to biotic associations influenced by salinity and other factors. Gulf Research Reports 2:73-96.
155. Metchnikoff, E. 1891. Lectures on the Comparative Pathology of Inflammation. Delivered at the Pasteur Institute in 1891, translated by F. A. Starling & E. H. Starling and originally published by Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co., Ltd. in 1893. Republished in 1968 by New York: Dover Publications Inc. 224 pp.
156. Murthy, G. K., A. S. Goldin & J. E. Campbell. 1959. Zinc-65 in foods. Science 130(3384):1255-1256.
157. Narain, A. S. 1973. The amoebocytes of lamellibranch molluscs, with special reference to the circulating amoebocytes. Malacol. Rev. 6:1-12.
158. Nelson, J. 1916. Copper content of green oysters. Report, Department of Biology, New Jersey State Agricultural Experiment Station (for 1915), Trenton, NJ, pp. 246-249.
159. Nelson, J. R. 1955. Symposium on various aspects of oyster setting. Oyster setting. Proc. Nat. Shellfish. Soc. (1954) 45:16-18.
160. Newell, R. I. E. & S. J. Jordan. 1983. Preferential ingestion of organic material by the American oyster, Crassostrea virginica. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 13:47-53.
161. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 1987. National status and trends program for marine environmental quality. A summary of selected data on chemical contaminants in tissues collected during 1984, 1985, and 1986. Technical Memorandum NOS OMA 38. US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Office of Oceanography and Marine Assessment, Ocean Assessments Division, Rockville, MD, 23 pp plus appendices.
162. O'Connor, T. P. 1994. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration national status and trends mussel watch program: national monitoring of chemical contamination in the coastal United States. In: C. R. Cothern & N. P. Ross, editors. Environmental statistics, assessment, and forecasting. Boca Raton, Florida: Lewis Publishers. pp. 331-339.
163. O'Connor, T. P. 1996. Trends in chemical concentrations in mussels and oysters collected along the US coast from 1986-1993. Mar. Environ. Res. 41:183-200.
164. O'Connor, T. P. 2002. National distribution of chemical concentrations in mussels and oysters in the USA. Mar. Environ. Res. 53:117-143.
165. O'Connor, T. P. & C. N. Ehler. 1991. Results from NOAA national status and trends program on distributions and effects of chemical contamination in the coastal and estuarine United States. Environ. Monit. Assess. 17:33-49.
166. Okazaki, R. K. 1976. Copper toxicity in the Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 16:658-664.
167. Okazaki, R. K. & M. H. Panietz. 1981. Depuration of twelve metals in tissues of the oysters Crassostrea gigas and C. virginica. Mar. Biol. 63:113-120.
168. Oliver, L. M. & W. S. Fisher. 1999. Appraisal of prospective bivalve immunomarkers. Biomarkers 4(6):510-530.
169. Oliver, L. M., W. S. Fisher, J. T. Winstead, B. L. Hemmer & E. R. Long. 2001. Relationships between tissue contaminants and defense-related characteristics of oysters (Crassostrea virginica) from five Florida bays. Aquat. Toxicol. 55:203-222.
170. Oliver, L. M., W. S. Fisher, A. K. Volety & Z. Malaeb. 2003. Relationships between oyster (Crassostrea virginica) defense measurements and tissue contaminant concentrations. Aquat. Toxicol. 64:363-373.
171. Orton, J. H. 1923. Summary of an account of investigations into the cause or causes of the unusual mortality among oysters in English oyster beds during 1920 and 1921. J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. UK. 13:1-23.
172. O'Shaughnessy, A. W. E. 1866. On green oysters. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. Ser. 3, vol. xviii, contribution XXXI, pp. 221-228.
173. Owen, G. 1966. Digestion. In: K. M. Wilbur & C. M. Yonge, editors. Physiology of mollusca, vol. 2. New York: Academic Press, pp. 53-96.
174. Pauley, G. B. & A. K. Sparks. 1965. Preliminary observations on the acute inflammatory reaction in the Pacific oyster, Crassostrea gigas (Thunberg). J. Invertebr. Path 7:248-257.
175. Pavia, A. T., J. F. Campbell, P. A. Blake, J. D. Smith, T. W. McKinley & D. L. Martin. 1987. Cholera from raw oysters shipped interstate. J. Amer. Med. Assoc. 258:2374.
176. Pease, H. D. 1911 Problems in the sanitary handling of opened oysters. Fishing Gazette 28:865-867.
177. Pequegnat, J. E., S. W. Fowler & L. F. Small. 1969. Estimates of the zinc requirements of marine organisms. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 26:145-150.
178. Perkins, F. O., D. S. Haven, R. Morales-Alamo & M. W. Rhodes. 1980. Uptake and elimination of bacteria in shellfish. J. Food Prot. 43:124-126.
179. Peters, R. & D. Raftos. 2002. The effects of Marteilia sydneyi on the host defense responses of the Sydney rock oyster, Saccostrea glomerata. J. Shellfish Res. 21:437.
180. Phelps, H. L. & E. W. Hetzel. 1987. Oyster size, age and copper and zinc accumulation. J. Shellfish Res. 6:67-70.
181. Phillips, A. H. 1917. Analytical search for metals in Tortugas marine organisms (IV). In: Papers from the Department of Marine Biology of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, DC, vol. 10. pp. 89-93.
182. Pirie, B. J. S., S. G. George, D. G. Lytton & J. D. Thomson. 1984. Metal-containing blood cells of oysters: ultrastructure, histochemistry and x-ray analysis. J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. U. K. 64:115-123.
183. Potts, W. T. W. 1967. Excretion in the molluscs. Biol. Rev 42:1-41.
184. 65Zn in the flesh of oysters related to the discharge of cooling pond effluent from the C.E.G.B Nuclear Power Station at Bradwell-on-Sea, Essex. In: B. Aberg & F. P. Hungate, editors. Radioecological concentration processes. Oxford, England: Pergamon Press. pp. 995-1004.
185. Preston, A. 1968. The control of radioactive pollution in a North Sea oyster fishery. Helgol. Meeresunters. 17:269-279.
186. Pringle, B. H., D. E. Hissong, E. L. Katz & S. T. Mulawka. 1968. Trace metal accumulation by estuarine mollusks. Proc. Amer. Soc. Civil Eng. J. Sanitary Engineering Division 94:455-475.
187. Prytherch, H. F. 1934. The role of copper in the setting, metamorphosis, and distribution of the American oyster, Ostrea virginica. Ecol. Monogr. 4(1):47-107.
188. Purchon, R. D. 1968. The biology of the mollusca. London: Pergamon Press.
189. Ranson, G. 1924. Note preliminaire sur le verdissement des huitres. Bull. Soc. Zool. France 49:512.
190. Ranson, G. 1925. La verdissement des huitres. C. R. Soc. Biol. 93:1100.
191. Ranson, G. 1936. Sur quelques maladies des huitres. Rev. Path. Camp. et d'Hyg. Gen. No 1. 475:1-21.
192. Reidel, G. F., G. R. Abbe & J. G. Sanders. 1995. Silver and copper accumulation in two estuarine bivalves, the eastern oyster (Crassostrea virginica) and the hooked mussel (Ischadium recurvum), in the Patuxent River Estuary, Maryland. Estuaries 18:445-455.
193. Reidel, G. F., G. R. Abbe & J. G. Sanders. 1998. Temporal and spatial variations of trace metal concentrations in oysters from the Patuxent River, Maryland. Estuaries 21:423-434.
194. Renwrantz, L. R., T. P. Yoshino, T. C. Cheng & K. R. Auld. 1979. Size determination of hemocytes from the American oyster, Crassostrea virginica, and the description of a phagocytosis mechanism. Jahrb. Zool. Abt. Physiol. Zoomorph. 83:1-12.
195. Richards, G. P. 1988. Microbial purification of shellfish: a review of depuration and relaying. J. Food Prot. 51:218-251.
196. Ringwood, A. H., D. E. Conners & A. Di Novo. 1998. The effects of copper exposures on cellular responses in oysters. Mar. Environ. Res. 46:1-5.
197. Rodrick, G. E. & S. A. Ulrich. 1984. Microscopic studies on the hemocytes of bivalves and their phagocytic interaction with selected bacteria. Helgol. Meeresunters. 37:167-176.
198. Roesijadi, G. 1994. Behavior of metallothionein-bound metals in a natural population of an estuarine mollusc. Mar. Environ. Res. 38:147-168.
199. Roesijadi, G. 1996. Environmental factors: response to metals. In: V. S. Kennedy, R. I. E. Newell, & A. F. Eble, editors. The Eastern Oyster Crassostrea virginica. College Park, Maryland: Maryland Sea Grant College Program, University of Maryland system, pp. 515-537.
200. 65Zn in oysters. Mar. Biol. 9:347-354.
201. Roosenburg, W. H. 1969. Greening and copper accumulation in the American oyster, Crassostrea virginica, in the vicinity of a steam electric generating station. Chesapeake Sci. 10:241-252.
202. Ruddell, C. L. 1971. Elucidation of the nature and function of the granular oyster amebocytes through histochemical studies of normal and traumatized oyster tissues. Histochemie 26:98-112.
203. Ruddell, C. L. & D. W. Rains. 1975. The relationship between zinc, copper and the basophils of two crassostreid oysters, C. gigas and C. virginica. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 51A:585-591.
204. Ryder, J. A. 1882. Notes on the breeding, food, and green color of the oyster. Bull. US Fish Comm. (also cited as Bull. Bur. Fish.), Vol. 1 for 1881. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office. pp. 403-419.
205. Ryder, J. A. 1882. Notes on the breeding, food, and green color of the oyster. Bull. US Fish Comm. (also cited as Bull. Bur. Fish.), Vol. 1 for 1881. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office. pp. 403-419.
206. Sami, S., M. Faisal & R. J. Huggett. 1992. Alterations in cytometric characteristics of hemocytes from the American oyster Crassostrea virginica exposed to a polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) contaminated environment. Mar. Biol. 113:247-252.
207. Sami, S., M. Faisal & R. J. Huggett. 1993. Effects of laboratory exposure to sediments contaminated with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons on the hemocytes of the American oyster Crassostrea virginica. Mar. Environ. Res. 35:131-135.
208. Sanders, J. G., G. F. Riedel & G. R. Abbe. 1991. Factors controlling the spatial and temporal variability of trace metal concentrations in Crassostrea virginica (Gmelin). In: M. Elliot & J. P. Ducrotoy, editors. Estuaries and coasts: Spatial and temporal intercomparisons. Virborg, Denmark: Olson and Olson Publishers. pp. 335-339.
209. Sanderson, C. J. 1982. Morphological aspects of lymphocyte mediated cytotoxicity. In: W. R. Clark & P. Golstein, editors. Mechanisms of cell-mediated cytotoxicity. New York: Plenum. pp. 3-26.
210. Scro, R. A. & S. E. Ford. 1990. An electron microscope study of disease progression in the oyster, Crassostrea virginica, infected with the protozoan parasite, Haplosporidium nelsoni (MSX). In: F. O. Perkins & T. C. Cheng, editors. Pathology in marine science. New York: Academic Press Inc. pp. 229-254.
211. Severy, H. W. 1923. The occurrence of copper and zinc in certain marine animals. J. Biol. Chem. 55:79-92.
212. Sherman, A. R. 1992. Zinc, copper and iron nutriture and immunity. J. Nutrition 122:604-609.
213. Shuster, C. N., Jr. & B. H. Pringle. 1969. Trace metal accumulation by the American eastern oyster, Crassostrea virginica. Proc. Natl. Shellfish. Assoc. 59:91-103.
214. Simkiss, K. & A. Z. Mason. 1983. Metal ions: metabolic and toxic effects. In: The mollusca Vol. 2 environmental biochemistry and physiology. New York: Academic Press. pp. 101-163.
215. Simkiss, K., M. Taylor & A. Z. Mason. 1982. Metal detoxification and bioaccumulation in molluscs. Mar. Biol. Letters 3:187-201.
216. Söderhäll, K. 1982. The prophenoloxidase activating system and melanisation: a recognition mechanism of arthropods? A review. Dev. Comp. Immunol. 6:601-611.
217. Söderhäll, K., L. Cerenius & M. W. Johansson. 1994. The prophenoloxidase activating system and its role in invertebrate defense. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 712:155-161.
218. Soniat, T. M. 1996. Epizootiology of Perkinsus marinus disease of eastern oysters in the Gulf of Mexico. J. Shellfish Res. 15:35-43.
219. Soniat, T. M. & M. S. Brody. 1988. Field validation of a habitat suitability index model for the American Oyster. Estuaries 11:87-95.
220. Sprague, V. E., A. Dunnington & E. Drobeck. 1969. Decrease in incidence of Minchinia nelsoni in oysters accompanying reduction of salinity in the laboratory. Proc. Nat. Shellfish. Assoc. 59:23-26.
221. Stauber, L. A. 1950. The fate of India ink injected intracardially into the oyster Ostrea virginica Gmelin. Biol. Bull. 98:227-241.
222. Stauber, L. A. 1961. Immunity of invertebrates, with special reference to the oyster. Proc. Nat. Shellfish. Assoc. 50:7-20.
223. Sunila, I. & J. LaBanca. 2003. Apoptosis in the pathogenesis of infectious diseases of the eastern oyster Crassostrea virginica. Dis. Aquat. Org. 56:163-170.
224. Takatsuki, S. 1934. On the nature and functions of the amebocytes of Ostrea edulis. Qtr. J. Microsc. Sci. 76:379-431.
225. Tamplin, M. L. & G. Capers. 1992. Persistence of Vibrio vulnificus in tissues of Gulf Coast oysters, Crassostrea virginica, exposed to seawater disinfected with UV light. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 58:1506-1510.
226. Thiselton Dyer, W. T. 1877. Greening of oysters. Nature. September 6, 1877, pp. 397.
227. Thomson, J. D., B. J. S. Pirie & S. G. George. 1985. Cellular metal distribution in the Pacific oyster, Crassostrea gigas (Thun.) determined by quantitative X-ray microprobe analysis. J. Exper. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 85:37-45.
228. Thorpe, T. E. 1896. Oyster culture in relation to disease. Nature 55:105-107.
229. Tripp, M. R. 1958. Disposal by the oyster of intracardially injected red blood cells of vertebrates. Proc. Nat. Shellfish. Assoc. 48:143-147.
230. Tripp, M. R. 1960. Mechanisms of removal of injected microorganisms from the American oyster, Crassostrea virginica (Gmelin). Biol. Bull. 119:273-282.
231. Tripp, M. R. 1970. Defense mechanisms of mollusks. J. Reticuloendoth. Soc. 7:173-182.
232. Tripp, M. R. & V. E. Kent. 1967. Studies on oyster cellular immunity. In Vitro 3:129-135.
233. Vinogradov, A. P. 1953. Chemical composition of marine organisms. Memoir Sears found. Mar. Res. Report II, pp. 339-358.
234. Volety, A. K. & W. S. Fisher. 2000. In vitro killing of Perkinsus marinus by hemocytes of oysters Crassostrea virginica. J. Shellfish Res. 19: 827-834.
235. Volety, A. K., S. A. McCarthy, B. D. Tall, S. K. Curtis, W. S. Fisher & F. J. Genthner. 2001. Responses of oyster (Crassostrea virginica) hemocytes to nonpathogenic and fecal isolates of Vibrio parahaemolyticus. Aquat. Microb. Ecol. 25:11-20.
236. Volety, A. K., L. M. Oliver, F. J. Genthner & W. S. Fisher. 1999. A rapid tetrazolium dye reduction assay to assess the bactericidal activity of oyster (Crassostrea virginica) hemocytes against Vibrio parahaemolyticus. Aquaculture 172:205-222.
237. Wagge, L. E. 1955. Amoebocytes. Internat. Rev. Cytol. 4:31-78.
238. Watson, D. G., J. J. Davis & W. C. Hanson. 1961. Zinc-65 in marine organisms along the Oregon and Washington coasts. Science 133: 1826-1828.
239. Wells, H. W. 1961. The fauna of oyster beds, with special reference to the salinity factor. Ecol. Monogr. 31:239-266.
240. Winstead, J. T. & J. A. Couch. 1988. Enhancement of protozoan pathogen Perkinsus marinus infections in American oysters Crassostrea virginica exposed to the chemical carcinogen n-nitrosodiethylamine (DENA). Dis. Aquat. Org. 5:205-213.
241. 65Zn in Crassostrea virginica from North Carolina. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 27:47-57.
242. Wolfe, D. A. 1970b. Zinc enzymes in Crassotrea virginica. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 37:59-69.
243. Wright, D. A., J. A. Mihursky & H. L. Phelps. 1985. Trace metals in Chesapeake Bay oysters: intra-sample variability and its implications for biomonitoring. Mar. Environ. Res. 16:181-197.
244. Wright, D. A. & C. D. Zamuda. 1987. Copper accumulation by two bivalve molluscs: salinity effect is independent of cupric ion activity.
245. Yonge, C. M. 1926. Structure and physiology of the organs of feeding and digestion in Ostrea edulis. J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. 14:295-386.
246. Yonge, C. M. 1928. The absorption of glucose by Ostrea edulis. J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. U. K. 15:643-653.
247. Yonge, C. M. 1937. Evolution and adaptation in the digestive system of the Metazoa. Biol. Rev. 12:87-115.
248. Yonge, C. M. 1946. Digestion of animals by lamellibranchs. Nature 157: 729.
249. Yoshino, T. P. & T. C. Cheng. 1976. Fine structural localization of acid phosphatase in granulocytes of the pelecypod Mercenaria mercenaria. Trans. Amer. Microscop. Soc. 95:215-220.
250. Zamuda, C. D. & W. G. Sunda. 1982. Bioavailability of dissolved copper to the American oyster, Crassostrea virginica. I. Importance of chemical speciation. Mar. Biol. 66:77-82.
251. Zaroogian, G. E. 1979. Studies on the depuration of cadmium and copper by the American oyster Crassostrea virginica. Bull. Environm. Contam. Toxicol. 23:117-122.