When family matters: An analysis of Thelotremataceae (Lichenized Ascomycota: Ostropales) as bioindicators of ecological continuity in tropical forests

Biodiversity and Conservation

Volumn 17, Issue 6, 2008, Pages 1319-1351

  Rivas Plata, Eimy ^a,b   Lücking, Robert ^a   Lumbsch, H Thorsten ^a  

^a FIELD MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS AT CHICAGO   (United States)

Author keywords

Corticolous; Costa Rica; Crustose; Lichen families

Indexed keywords

BIOINDICATOR; DISTURBANCE; HABITAT SELECTION; LICHEN; LIGHT EFFECT; MICROHABITAT; OLD-GROWTH FOREST; SEASONALITY; TAXONOMY; TROPICAL FOREST; VEGETATION TYPE;

CENTRAL AMERICA; COSTA RICA;

ARTHONIACEAE; ARTHOPYRENIACEAE; ASCOMYCOTA; COENOGONIACEAE; GRAPHIDACEAE; LECANORACEAE; LETROUITIACEAE; MONOBLASTIACEAE; OSTROPALES; PERTUSARIACEAE; PHYSCIACEAE; PILOCARPACEAE; PYRENULACEAE; RAMALINACEAE; ROCCELLACEAE; STRIGULACEAE; TELOSCHISTACEAE; THELENELLACEAE; THELOTREMATACEAE; TRYPETHELIACEAE;

EID: 45449088979     PISSN: 09603115     EISSN: 15729710     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s10531-007-9289-9     Document Type: Article

References (147)

1. Achard F, Eva H, Stibig HJ, Mayaux P, Gallego J, Richards T, Malingreau JP (2002) Determination of deforestation rates of the world's humid tropical forests. Science 297:999-1002
2. Aide TM, Zimmermann JK, Pascarella JB, Rivera L, Marcano-Vega H (2000) Forest regeneration in a chronosequence of tropical abandoned pastures: implications for restoration ecology. Restor Ecol 8:328-338
3. Alverson WS, Rodríguez LO, Moskovits DK (eds) (2001) Rapid biological inventories 02: Perú: Biabo Cordillera Azul. The Field museum, Chicago
4. Arroyo-Mora JP, Sánchez-Azofeifa GA, Rivard B, Calvo JC, Janzen DH (2005) Dynamics in landscape structure and composition for the Chorotega region, Costa Rica, from 1960 to 2000. Agric Ecosys Environ 106:27-39
5. Balmford A, Whitten T (2003) Who should pay for tropical conservation, and how could the costs be met? Oryx 37:238-250
6. Barrow E, Timmer D, White S, Maginnis S (2002) Forest Landscape Restoration: Building Assets for People and Nature - Experience from East Africa. World Conservation Union (IUCN), Cambridge
7. Bartholmess H, Erhardt W, Frahm JP, Franzen-Reuter I, John V, Kirschbaum U, Türk R, Windisch U, Wirth V (2004) Biologische Messverfahren zur Ermittlung und Beurteilung der Wirkung von Luftverunreinigungen auf Flechten (Bioindikation). Kartierung der Diversität epiphytischer Flechten als Indikator für die Luftgüte. VDI 3957, Part 13. Verein Deutscher Ingenieure (VDI), Düsseldorf
8. Bonnie R, Schwartzman S, Oppenheimer M, Bloomfield J (2000) Counting the costs of deforestation. Science 288:1763-1764
9. Brentrup F, Küsters J, Lammel J, Kuhlmann H (2002) Life cycle impact assessment of land use based on the hemeroby concept. Int J Life Cycle Assess 7:339-348
10. Brienen RJW (2005) Tree rings in the tropics: a study on growth and ages of Bolivian rain forest trees. Tekst. Proefschrift, Universiteit Utrecht
11. Brook BW, Bradshaw CJA, Koh LP, Sodhi NS (2006) Momentum drives the crash: mass extinction in the tropics. Biotropica 38:302-305
12. Cáceres MES, Lücking R, Rambold G (2007a) Corticolous microlichens in northeastern Brazil: Habitat differentiation between coastal Mata Atlântica, Caatinga and Brejos de Altitude. The Bryologist (in press)
13. Cáceres MES, Lücking R, Rambold G (2007b) Phorophyte specificity and environmental parameters as determinants for species composition, richness and area cover in corticolous crustose lichen communities in the Atlantic rainforest of northeastern Brazil. Mycological Progress (in press)
14. Cáceres MES, Lücking R, Rambold G (2007c) Efficiency of sampling methods for accurate estimation of species richness: Corticolous microlichens in the Atlantic rainforest of northeastern Brazil. Ecotropica (in press)
15. Caro TM, O'Doherty G (1999) On the use of surrogate species in conservation biology. Conserv Biol 13:805-814
16. Chaves JL, Lücking R, Sipman HJM, Umaña L, Navarro E (2004) A first assessment of the ticolichen biodiversity inventory in Costa Rica: the genus Dictyonema (Polyporales: Atheliaceae). Bryologist 107:242-249
17. Chazdon RL, Fetcher N (1984) Light environments of tropical forests. In: Medina E, Mooney HA, Vasquez-Yanes C (eds) Physiological Ecology of Plants of the Wet Tropics. W. Junk, The Hague, pp. 27-36
18. Chesson P (2000) Mechanisms of maintenance of species diversity. Ann Rev Ecol Sys 31:343-366
19. Clark DA, Clark DB (2001) Getting to the canopy: Tree height growth in a neotropical rain forest. Ecology 82:1460-1472
20. Clark DB, Clark DA, Rich PM, Weiss WB, Oberbauer SB (1996) Landscape-scale evalu-ation of understory light and canopy structure: methods and application in a neotropical low-land rain forest. Can J For Res 26:747-757
21. Connell JH (1978) Diversity in tropical rain forests and coral reefs. Science 199:1302-1310
22. Cornelissen JHC, Ter Steege H (1989) Distribution and ecology of epiphytic bryophytes and lichens in dry evergreen forest of Guyana. J Trop Ecol 5:131-150
23. Cranston PS, Trueman JWH (1997) 'Indicator' organism groups in invertebrate biodiversity assessment. Mem Mus Vic 562:267-274
24. Cunningham S, Read J (2003) Comparison of temperate and tropical rainforest tree species: growth responses to temperature. J Biogeogr 30:143-153
25. Curran LM, Caniago I, Paoli GD, Astiani D, Kusneti M, Leighton M, Nirarita CE, Haeruman H (1999) Impact of El Niño and logging on canopy tree recruitment in Borneo. Science 286:2184-2188
26. Dalton R (2006) Biodiversity: Cashing in on the rich coast. Nature 442:567-569
27. DeLeo GA, Levin S (1997) The multifaceted aspects of ecosystem integrity. Conserv Ecol 1:3
28. Defries RS, Houghton RA, Hansen MC, Field CB, Skole D, Townshend J (2002) Carbon emissions from tropical deforestation and regrowth based on satellite observations for the 1980s and 90s. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 99:14256-14261
29. Denslow JS (1987) Tropical rainforest gaps and tree species diversity. Ann Rev Ecol Sys 18:431-451
30. Di Stéfano JF, Ielsen VN, Hoomans J, Fournier LA (1996) Regeneración de la vegetación arbórea en una pequeña reserva forestal urbana del premontano húmedo, Costa Rica. Rev Biol Trop 44:575-580
31. Ehrlich PR (1996) Conservation in temperate forests: what do we need to know and do? For Ecol Manage 851:9-19
32. Ehrlich PR, Ehrlich AH (1981) Extinction: the causes and consequences of the dissappearance of species. Random House, New York
33. Faith DP, Walker PA (1996a) Environmental diversity: on the best-possible use of surrogate data for assessing the relative biodiversity of sets of areas. Biodivers Conserv 54:399-415
34. Faith DP, Walker PA (1996b) How do indicator groups provide information about the relative biodiversity of different sets of areas?: on hotspots, complementarity and pattern-based approaches. Biodivers Lett 31:18-25
35. FAO (1981) Los Recursos Forestales de la América Tropical. Proyecto de Evaluación de los Recursos Forestales Tropicales. FAO, Rome
36. Fearnside PM (2000) Global warming and tropical land-use change: Greenhouse gas emissions from biomass burning, decomposition and soils in forest conversion, shifting cultivation and secondary vegetation. Clim Change 46:115-145
37. Fearnside PM (2001) Saving tropical forests as a global warming countermeasure: An issue that divides the environmental movement. Ecol Econ 39:167-184
38. Fearnside PM, Laurance WF (2004) Tropical deforestation and greenhouse gas emissions. Ecol Appl 14:982-986
39. Flather CH, Wilson KR, Dean DJ, McComb WC (1997) Identifying gaps in conservation networks: Of indicators and uncertainty in geographic-based analyses. Ecol Appl 72:531-542
40. Floren A, Linsenmair KE (2005) The importance of primary tropical rain forest for species diversity: an investigation using arboreal ants as an example. Ecosystems 8:559-567
41. Frisch A, Kalb K, Grube M (2006) Contributions towards a new systematics of the lichen family Thelotremataceae. Bibl Lichenol 92:1-556
42. Gauslaa Y, Solhaug K-A (1996) Differences in the susceptibility to light stress between epiphytic lichens of ancient and young boreal forest stands. Funct Ecol 10:344-354
43. Gómez LD (1986) Vegetación de Costa Rica. In: Gómez LD (ed) Vegetación y Clima de Costa Rica, vol 1. Editorial Universidad Estatal a Distancia, San José (Costa Rica)
44. Gradstein SR, Hietz P, Lücking R, Lücking A, Sipman HJM, Vester HFM, Wolf JHD, Gardette E (1996) How to sample the epiphytic diversity of tropical rain forests. Ecotropica 2:59-72
45. Grubb PJ (1971) Interpretation of the "Massenerhebung" effect on tropical mountains. Nature 229:44-45
46. Hale ME Jr (1974) Morden-Smithsonian expedition to Dominica: the lichens (Thelotremataceae). Smith Contrib Bot 16:1-46
47. Hale ME Jr (1978) A revision of the lichen family Thelotremataceae in Panama. Smith Contrib Bot 38:1-60
48. Hale ME Jr (1981) A revision of the lichen family Thelotremataceae in Sri Lanka. Bull Br Mus 8:227-332
49. Hartshorn GS (1978) Treefalls and tropical forest dynamics. In: Tomlinson PB, Zimmerman MH (eds) Tropical Trees as Living Systems. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, pp 617-638
50. Hastenrath S (1968) Certain aspects of the three-dimensional distribution of climate and vegetation belts in the mountains of Central America and southern Mexico. In: Troll C (ed) Colloquim Goegraphicum, Band 9. Geoecology of the Mountainous Regions in the Tropical Americas. Proceedings of the UNESCO Mexico Symposium 1966, pp 122-130
51. Hawksworth D, Rose F (1970) Qualitative scale for estimating sulphur dioxide air pollution in England and Wales using epiphytic lichens. Nature 227:145-148
52. Hawksworth DL, Rose F (1976) Lichens as Pollution Monitors. Edward Arnold, London
53. Heinselman ML (1973) Fire in the virgin forests of the Boundary Waters Canoe Area, Minnesota. Quat Res 3:329-382
54. Herrera W (1985) Clima de Costa Rica. In: Gómez LD (ed) Vegetación y Clima de Costa Rica, vol 2. Editorial Universidad Estatal a Distancia, San José, Costa Rica
55. Holdridge LR (1967) Life Zone Ecology. Tropical Science Center, San José (Costa Rica)
56. Holdridge LR, Grenke WC, Hatheway WH, Liang T, Tosi JA Jr (1971) Forest environments in tropical life zones: a pilot study. Oxford, Pergamon Press
57. Holz I, Gradstein SR (2005) Cryptogamic epiphytes in primary and recovering upper montane oak forests of Costa Rica - species richness, community composition and ecology. Plant Ecol 178:89-109
58. Hörnberg GO, Zackrisson U, Segerström U, Svensson BW, Ohlson M and Bradshaw RHW (1998) Boreal swamp forests biodiversity 'hotspots' in an impoverished forest landscape. Bioscience 48:795-802
59. Insarov GE, Schroeter B (2002) Lichen monitoring and climate change. In: Nimis PL, Scheidegger C, Wolseley PA (eds) Monitoring with Lichens - Monitoring Lichens, NATO Science Series, IV, vol 7. Kluwer, Dordrecht, pp 183-201
60. ITTO (2002) Guidelines for the restoration, management and rehabilitation of degraded and secondary tropical forest. International Tropical Timber Organization, Yokohama
61. Jablonski D, Roy K, Valentine JW (2006) Out of the tropics: evolutionary dynamics of the latitudinal diversity gradient. Science 314:102-106
62. Jentsch A, Beierkuhnlein C, White S (2002) Scale, the dynamic stability of forest ecosystems, and the persistence of biodiversity. Silva fenn 36:393-400
63. Jonsson B-G, Jonsell M (1999) Exploring potential biodiversity indicators in boreal forests. Biodivers Conserv 8:1417-1433
64. Kalb K (2004) New or otherwise interesting lichens II. Bibl Lichenol 88:301-329
65. Kappelle M, Geuze T, Leal ME, Cleff AM (1996) Successional age and forest structure in a Costa Rican upper montane Quercus forest. J Trop Ecol 12:681-698
66. Komposch H, Hafellner J (1999) List of lichenized fungi so far observed in the tropical lowland rain forest plot Surumoni (Venezuela, Estado Amazonas). Fritschiana 19:1-10
67. Komposch H, Hafellner J (2000) Diversity and vertical distribution of lichens in a Venezuelan tropical lowland rain forest. Selbyana 21:11-24
68. Komposch H, Hafellner J (2003) Species composition of lichen dominated corticolous communities: a lowland rain forest canopy compared to an adjacent shrubland in Venezuela. Bibl Lichenol 86:351-367
69. Kirschbaum U, Wirth V (1997) Flechten erkennen, Luftgüte bestimmen. Ulmer, Stuttgart
70. Kremen C, Niles JO, Dalton MG, Daily GC, Ehrlich PR, Fay JP, Grewal D, Guillery RRP (2000) Economic incentives for rain forest conservation across scales. Science 288:1828-1832
71. Lamb D, Erskine PD, Parrotta JA (2005) Restoration of degraded tropical forest landscapes. Science 310:1628-1632
72. Landres P, Verner BJ, Thomas JW (1988) Ecological uses of vertebrate indicator species: a critique. Conserv Biol 2:316-328
73. Laurance WF, Nascimento HEM, Laurance SG, Condit R, D'Angelo S, Andrade A (2004) Inferred longevity of Amazonian rainforest trees based on a long-term demographic study. For Ecol Manage 190:131-143
74. Laurance WF, Delamônica P, Laurance SG, Vasconcelos HL, Lovejoy TE (2000) Rainforest fragmentation kills big trees. Nature 404:836
75. Lawton RO, Nair US, Pielke RA, Welch RM (2001) Climatic impact of tropical lowland deforestation on nearby montane cloud forests. Science 294:584-587
76. LeBlanc F, De Sloover J (1970) Relation between industrialization and the distribution and growth of epiphytic lichens and mosses in Montreal. Can J Bot 48:1485-1496
77. Lewin R (1986) Mass extinctions select different victims. Science 231:219-220
78. Lücking R (1997) The use of foliicolous lichens as bioindicators in the tropics, with special reference to the microclimate. Abstr Bot 21(1):99-116
79. Lücking R (1998) Ecology of foliicolous lichens at the 'Botarrama' trail (Costa Rica), a neotropical rainforest site. Part II. Patterns of diversity and area cover, and their dependence on microclimate and phorophyte species. Ecotropica 4:1-24
80. Lücking R (1999) Ecology of foliicolous lichens at the 'Botarrama' trail (Costa Rica), a neotropical rainforest. IV. Species associations, their salient features and their dependence on environmental variables. Lichenologist 31:269-289
81. Lücking R (2001) Lichens on leaves in tropical rainforests: life in. a permanently ephemerous environment. Diss Bot 346:41-77
82. Lücking R, Sipman HJM, Umaña-Tenorio L (2004). TICOLICHEN-the Costa Rican lichen biodiversity inventory as a model for lichen inventories in the tropics. In: Randlane T, Saag A (eds) The 5th IAL Symposium. Lichens in Focus. Tartu University Press, Tartu, 32 pp
83. Lücking R, Chaves JL, Sipman HJM, Umaña L, Aptroot A (2007) A first assessment of the Ticolichen biodiversity inventory in Costa Rica: The genus Graphis (Ascomycota: Ostropales: Graphidaceae). Fieldiana (in press).
84. Malhi Y, Grace J (2000) Tropical forests and atmospheric carbon dioxide. Trends Ecol Evol 15:332-337
85. Marcelli MP (1992) Ecologia liquênica nos manguezais do sul-sudeste Brasileiro. Bibl Lichenol 47(i-vii):1-288
86. Margules CR, Pressey RL (2000) Systematic conservation planning. Nature 405:243-253
87. Martin PH, Sherman RE, Fahey TJ (2004) Forty years of tropical forest recovery from agriculture: structure and floristics of secondary and old-growth riparian forests in the Dominican Republic. Biotropica 36:297-317
88. McCune B (2000) Lichen communities as indicators of forest health. Bryologist 103:353-356
89. McCune B, Grace JB, Urban DL (2002) Analysis of ecological communities. MjM Software, Gleneden Beach, Oregon
90. McCune B, Mefford MJ (1999) PC-ORD. Multivariate Analysis of Ecological Data, version 4.0. MjM Software, Gleneden Beach, Oregon, USA
91. McDade LA, Bawa KS, Hespenheide HA, Hartshorn GS (eds) (1994) La Selva: ecology and natural history of a neotropical rain forest. University of Chicago Press, Chicago
92. Montfoort D, Ek R (1990) Vertical distribution and ecology of epiphytic bryophytes and lichens in a lowland rainforest in French Guiana. Herbarium, Institute of Systematic Botany, Utrecht
93. Myers N (1991) Trees by the billions: a blueprint for ecology. Int Wildl 21:12-15
94. Nilsson S-G, Baranowski R (1994) Indikatorer på jätteträdskontinuitet-Svenska förekomster av knäppare som är beroende av grova, levande träd. Entomol Tidskr 115:81-97
95. Nimis PL (1999) Linee guida per la bioindicazione degli effetti dell'inquinamento tramite la biodiversità dei licheni epifiti. In: Piccini C, Salvati S (eds) Atti Workshop Biomonitoraggio Qualità dell'Aria sul territorio Nazionale, pp 267-277. ANPA, Ser. Atti, 2
96. Nimis PL, Scheidegger C, Wolseley PA (eds) (2002) Monitoring with Lichens-Monitoring Lichens. NATO Science Series. IV. Earth and Environmental Sciences, 7. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, The Netherlands
97. Nordén B, Appelquist T (2001) Conceptual problems of Ecological Continuity and its bioindicators. Biodivers Conserv 10:779-791
98. Nöske NM (2004) Effekte anthropogener Störung auf die Diversität kryptogamischer Epiphyten (Flechten, Moose) in einem Bergregenwald in Südecuador. Ph.D. Thesis, Mathematisch- Naturwissenschaftliche Fakultät, Georg-August-Universität zu Göttingen.
99. Pearce D (2001) How valuable are the tropical forests? Demonstrating and capturing economic value as a means of addressing the causes of deforestation. Conseil d'Analyse Économique, Seminaire Economie de L'Environnement et du Developpement Durable, Paris
100. Péres REP (2005) Impacto del Manejo Forestal en los Macrolíquenes Cortícolas de Pinus patula (Schl. & Cham) an la Sierra de Juárez, Oaxaca. PhD Thesis, Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Morelos, Cuernavaca, México
101. Phillips OL, Hall P, Gentry AH, Sawyer SA, Vázquez R (1994) Dynamics and species richness of tropical rain forests. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 91: 2805-2809
102. Prendergast JR, Eversham BC (1997) Species richness covariance in higher taxa: empirical tests of the biodiversity indicator concept. Ecography 20:210-216
103. Raup DM (1986) Biological extinction in earth history. Science 231:1528-1533
104. Remmert H (1991) The mosaic-cycle concept of ecosystems-an overview. In: Remmert H (ed) The Mosaic-cycle Concept of Ecosystems. Springer, Berlin, pp 1-21
105. Rose F (1974) The epiphytes of oak. In: Morris MG, Perring FH (eds) The British oak: its history and natural history. Classey Faringdon, UK, pp 250-273
106. Rose F (1976) Lichenological indicators of age and ecological continuity in Woodlands. In: Brown DH, Hawksworth DL, Bailey RH (eds) Lichenology: progress and problems. Academic Press, London, pp 279-307
107. Rose F (1992) Temperate forest management: its effects on bryophyte and lichen floras and habitats. In: Bates JW, Farmer AM (eds) Bryophytes and lichens in a changing enviroment. Oxford Scientific Publications, Oxford, pp 211-233
108. Rose F, Coppins S (2002) Site assessment of epiphytic habitats using lichen indices. In: Nimis PL et al (eds) Monitoring with lichens - Monitoring lichens NATO science series, IV, vol 7. Kluwer, Dordrecht, pp 434-348
109. Rosenmeier MF, Hodell DA, Brenner M, Curtis JH, Martin JB, Anselmetti FS, Ariztegui D, Guilderson TP (2002) Influence of vegetation change on watershed hydrology: implications for paleoclimatic interpretation of lacustrine δ 18 O records. J Paleolimnol 27:117-131
110. Sagar R, Raghubanshi AS, Singh JS (2003) Asymptotic models of species-area curve for measuring diversity of dry tropical forest tree species. Curr Sci 84:1555-1560
111. Sanchez-Azofeifa GA, Harris RC, Skole DL (2001) Deforestation in Costa Rica: A quantitative analysis using remote sensing imagery. Biotropica 33:378-384
112. Scheiner SM (2003) Six types of species-area curves. Glob Ecol Biogeogr 12:441-447
113. Scheiner SM (2004) A mélange of curves - further dialogue about species-area relationships. Glob Ecol Biogeogr 13:479-484
114. Scheiner SM, Cox SB, Willig M, Mittelbach GG, Osenberg C, Kaspari M (2000) Species richness, species-area curves and Simpson's paradox. Evol Ecol Res 2: 791-802
115. Selva SB (1994) Lichen diversity and stand continuity in the northern hardwoods and spruce-fir forests of northern New England and western New Brunswick. Bryologist 97:424-429
116. Selva SB (1996) Using lichens to assess ecological continuity in northeastern forests. In: Byrd M (ed) Eastern old-growth forests - prospects for rediscovery and recovery. Island Press,Washington, DC, pp 35-48
117. Shukla J, Shukla J, Nobre C, Sellers P (1990) Amazon deforestation and climate change. J Sci 247:1322-1325
118. Silva Filho AA, Toniolo ER, Gabínio M, Oliveira SFS (1998) Mapeamento da cobertura florestal nativa lenhosa do estado de Pernambuco (Documento de Campo FAO no. 17). PNDU, FAO, IBAMA, Governo de Pernambuco
119. Sipman HJM (1996) Corticolous lichens. In: Gradstein SR, Hietz P, Lücking R, Lücking A, Sipman HJM, Vester HFM, Wolf JHD, Gardette E (eds) How to sample the epiphytic diversity of tropical rain forests, pp 66-67. Ecotropica 2: 59-72
120. Sipman HJM, Harris RC (1989) Lichens. In Lieth H, Werger MJA (eds) Tropical rain forest ecosystems biogeographical and ecological studies (Ecosystems of the World 14B). Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 303-309
121. Skole D, Tucker C (1993) Tropical deforestation and habitat fragmentation in the Amazon: satellite data from 1978 to 1988. Science 260:1905-1910
122. Smith AP, Hogan KP, Idol JR (1992) Spatial and temporal patterns of light and canopy structure in lowland tropical moist forest. Biotropica 24:503-511
123. Staiger B (2002) Die Flechtenfamilie Graphidaceae. Studien in Richtung einer natürlicheren Gliederung. Bibl Lichenol 85:1-526
124. Sterck FJ (1997) Trees and Light: Tree Development and Morphology in relation to light availability in a tropical rain forest in French Guiana. PhD Thesis, Wageningen Agricultural University, Ponser & Looijen, Wageningen
125. Sterck FJ, Clark DB, Clark DA, Bongers F (1999) Light fluctuations, crown traits, and response delays for tree saplings in a Costa Rican lowland rain forest. J Trop Ecol 5:83-95
126. Still CJ, Foster PN, Schneider SH (1999) Simulating the effect of climate change on tropical montane cloud forests. Nature 398:608-610
127. Stokstad E (2005) Learning to adapt. Science 309:688-690
128. Sverdrup-Thygeson A (2001) Can 'continuity indicator species' predict species richness or red-listed species of saproxylic beetles? Biodivers Conserv 10:815-832
129. Terbourgh J (1992) Maintenance of diversity in tropical forests. Biotropica 24:283-292
130. Turton SM (1992) Understory light environments in a northeast Australian rain forest before and after a tropical cyclone. J Trop Ecol 8:241-252
131. Uhl C, Buschbacher R, Serrão EAS (1988) Abandoned pastures in Eastern Amazonia. I. Patterns of plant succession. J Ecol 6:663-681
132. Whitfield J (2001) Vital signs. Nature 411:989-990
133. Whitmore TC (1990) An introduction to tropical rainforests. Clarendon Press, Oxford
134. Wilson EO (1984) Biophilia. Harvard University Press, Cambridge
135. Wilson EO (1999) The diversity of life. W. W. Norton & Co., New York
136. Wilson EO (2002) The future of life. Knopf, New York
137. Wirth M, Hale ME Jr (1963) The lichen family Graphidaceae in Mexico. Contrib US Natl Herb 36:63-119
138. Wirth M, Hale ME Jr (1978) Morden-Smithsonian expedition to Dominica: the lichens (Graphidaceae). Smith Contrib Bot 40:1-64
139. Wolseley PA (2002) Using corticolous lichens of tropical forests to assess environmental changes. In: Nimis PL, Scheidegger C, Wolseley PA (eds) Monitoring with Lichens - Monitoring Lichens, Nato Science Series IV Earth and Environmental Sciences. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, pp 1-2
140. Wolseley PA, Aguirre-Hudson B (1991) Lichens as indicators of environmental change in the tropical forests of Thailand. Glob Ecol Biogeogr Lett 1:170-175
141. Wolseley PA, Aguirre-Hudson B (1997a) The ecology and distribution of lichens in tropical deciduous and evergreen forests of northern Thailand. J Biogeogr 24:327-343
142. Wolseley PA, Aguirre-Hudson B (1997b) Fire in tropical dry forests: corticolous lichens as indicators of recent ecological changes in Thailand. J Biogeogr 24:345-362
143. Wolseley PA, Moncrieff C, Aguirre-Hudson B (1994) Lichens as indicators of environ-mental stability and change in the tropical forests of Thailand. Glob Ecol Biogeogr Lett 4:116-123
144. Wright SJ (2002) Plant diversity in tropical forests: a review of mechanisms of species coexistence. Oecologia 130:1-14
145. Wright SJ, Muller-Landau HC (2006) The future of tropical forest species. Biotropica 38:287-301
146. Wu J, Loucks OL (1995) From balance of nature to hierarchical patch dynamics: a paradigm shift in ecology. Q Rev Biol 70:439-466
147. Zedda L (2002) The epiphytic lichens on Quercus in Sardinia (Italy) and their value as ecological indicators. Englera 24:1-468