The reappearance hypothesis revisited: Recurrent involuntary memories after traumatic events and in everyday life

Memory and Cognition

Volumn 36, Issue 2, 2008, Pages 449-460

  Berntsen, Dorthe ^a   Rubin, David C ^b  

^a AARHUS UNIVERSITY   (Denmark)

^b DUKE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ADULT; AGED; ARTICLE; AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL MEMORY; DAILY LIFE ACTIVITY; DENMARK; DOCUMENTATION; EMOTIONAL STRESS; FEMALE; HUMAN; HYPOTHESIS; LIFE EVENT; MAJOR CLINICAL STUDY; MALE; MEMORY CONSOLIDATION; PERSONAL EXPERIENCE; POSTTRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER; REAPPEARANCE HYPOTHESIS; RECALL; SOUTHEAST ASIA; SURVIVOR; SYMPTOMATOLOGY; TRAUMATIC MEMORY; TSUNAMI; ADOLESCENT; DISASTER; EMOTION; LONG TERM MEMORY; MIDDLE AGED; PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT; QUESTIONNAIRE; RETROSPECTIVE STUDY; SRI LANKA; THAILAND;

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; AGED; AGED, 80 AND OVER; EMOTIONS; FEMALE; HUMANS; MALE; MENTAL RECALL; MIDDLE AGED; NATURAL DISASTERS; QUESTIONNAIRES; RETENTION (PSYCHOLOGY); RETROSPECTIVE STUDIES; SRI LANKA; STRESS DISORDERS, POST-TRAUMATIC; THAILAND;

EID: 44649142167     PISSN: 0090502X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3758/MC.36.2.449     Document Type: Article

References (56)

1. AMERICAN PSYCHIATRIC ASSOCIATION (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-IV-TR (4th ed., rev.). Washington, DC: Author.
2. ANDERSON, S. J., COHEN, G., & TAYLOR, S. (2000). Rewriting the past: Some factors affecting the variability of personal memories. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 14, 435-454.
3. BALL, C. T., & LITTLE, J. C. (2006). A comparison of involuntary autobiographical memory retrievals. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 20, 1167-1179.
4. BARTLETT, F. C. (1932). Remembering: A study in experimental and social psychology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
5. BERNTSEN, D. (1996). Involuntary autobiographical memories. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 10, 435-454.
6. BERNTSEN, D. (2001). Involuntary memories of emotional events. Do memories of traumas and extremely happy events differ? Applied Cognitive Psychology, 15, 135-158.
7. BERNTSEN, D., & HALL, N. M. (2004). The episodic nature of involuntary autobiographical memories. Memory & Cognition, 32, 789-803.
8. BERNTSEN, D., & RUBIN, D. C. (2002). Emotionally charged autobiographical memories across the lifespan: The recall of happy, sad, traumatic, and involuntary memories. Psychology & Aging, 17, 636-652.
9. BERNTSEN, D., & RUBIN, D. C. (2006a). The centrality of event scale: A measure of integrating a trauma into one's identity and its relation to post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms. Behaviour Research & Therapy, 44, 219-231.
10. BERNTSEN, D., & RUBIN, D. C. (2006b). Flashbulb memories and post-traumatic stress reactions across the life span: Age-related effects of the German occupation of Denmark during World War II. Psychology & Aging, 21, 127-139.
11. BERNTSEN, D., & RUBIN, D. C. (2007). When a trauma becomes a key to identity: Enhanced integration of trauma memories predicts post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 21, 417-431.
12. BLANCHARD, E. B., JONES-ALEXANDER, J., BUCKLEY, T. C., & FORNERIS, C. A. (1996). Psychometric properties of the PTSD checklist (PCL). Behaviour Research & Therapy, 34, 669-673.
13. BREWIN, C. R., DALGLEISH, T., & JOSEPH, S. (1996). A dual representation theory of posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychological Review, 103, 670-686.
14. BREWIN, C. R., & HOLMES, E. A. (2003). Psychological theories of posttraumatic stress disorder. Clinical Psychology Review, 23, 339-376.
15. CHARLES, S. T., REYNOLDS, C. A., & GATZ, M. (2001). Age-related differences and change in positive and negative affect over 23 years. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 80, 136-151.
16. CHRISTIANSON, S.-Å. (1992). Emotional stress and eyewitness memory: A critical review. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 284-309.
17. CONWAY, M. A. (2005). Memory and the self. Journal of Memory & Language, 53, 594-628.
18. CONWAY, M. A., & PLEYDELL-PEARCE, C. W. (2000). The construction of autobiographical memory in the self-memory system. Psychological Review, 107, 261-288.
19. DOLCOS, F., LABAR, K. S., & CABEZA, R. (2004). Interaction between the amygdala and the medial temporal lobe memory system predicts better memory for emotional events. Neuron, 42, 855-863.
20. DOLCOS, F., LABAR, K. S., & CABEZA, R. (2005). Remembering one year later: Role of the amygdala and the medial temporal lobe memory system in retrieving emotional memories. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 102, 2626-2631.
21. EHLERS, A., & CLARK, D. M. (2000). A cognitive model of posttraumatic stress disorder. Behaviour Research & Therapy, 38, 319-345.
22. EHLERS, A., HACKMANN, A., & MICHAEL, T. (2004). Intrusive re-experiencing in post-traumatic stress disorder: Phenomenology, theory, and therapy. Memory, 12, 403-415.
23. EHLERS, A., HACKMANN, A., STEIL, R., CLOHESSY, S., WENNINGER, K., & WINTER, H. (2002). The nature of intrusive memories after trauma: The warning signal hypothesis. Behaviour Research & Therapy, 40, 995-1002.
24. FOA, E. B. (1995). Posttraumatic Stress Diagnostic Scale (PDS). Minneapolis: National Computer Systems.
25. FRANKEL, F. H. (1994). The concept of flashback in historical perspective. International Journal of Clinical & Experimental Hypnosis, 42, 321-336.
26. FREUD, S. (1914). Remembering, repeating and working-through. In J. Strachey (Ed.), The standard edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud (Vol. 12). London: Hogarth.
27. FREUD, S. (1919). Introduction to "psycho-analysis and the war neurosis." In J. Strachey (Ed.), The standard edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud (Vol. 17). London: Hogarth.
28. FREUD, S. (1920). Beyond the pleasure principle. In J. Strachey (Ed.), The standard edition of the complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud (Vol. 18). London: Hogarth.
29. FUNKHOUSER, A. T., HIRSBRUNNER, H. P., CORNU, C., & BAHRO, M. (1999). Dreams and dreaming among the elderly: An overview. Aging & Mental Health, 3, 10-20.
30. GERAERTS, E., KOZARIĆ- KOVAČIĆ, D., MERCKELBACH, H., PERAICA, T., JELICIC, M., & CANDEL, I. (2007). Traumatic memories of veterans: Not so special after all. Consciousness & Cognition, 16, 170-177.
31. HACKMANN, A., EHLERS, A., SPECKENS, A., & CLARK, D. M. (2004). Characteristics and content of intrusive memories in PTSD and their changes with treatment. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 17, 231-240.
32. HOROWITZ, M. J. (1992). Stress response syndromes (2nd ed.). Northvale, NJ: Jason Aronson.
33. HOROWITZ, M. J., & REIDBORD, S. P. (1992). Memory, emotion, and response to trauma. In S.-Å. Christiansen (Ed.), The handbook of emotion and memory: Research and theory (pp. 343-357). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
34. JAMES, W. (1890). The principles of psychology (Vol. I). New York: Henry Holt & Co.
35. KVAVILASHVILI, L., & MANDLER, G. (2004). Out of one's mind: A study of involuntary semantic memories. Cognitive Psychology, 48, 47-94.
36. MACE, J. H. (ED.) (2007). Involuntary memory. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
37. MCGAUGH, J. L. (2003). Memory and emotion: The making of lasting memories. New York: Columbia University Press.
38. MERCKELBACH, H., MURIS, P., HORSELENBERG, R., & RASSIN, E. (1998). Traumatic intrusions as "worse case scenario's." Behaviour Research & Therapy, 36, 1075-1079.
39. MROCZEK, D. K. (2001). Age and emotion in adulthood. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 10, 87-90.
40. NEISSER, U. (1967). Cognitive psychology. East Norwalk, CT: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
41. PILLEMER, D. B. (1998). Momentous events, vivid memories. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
42. PITMAN, R. K. (1988). Post-traumatic stress disorder, conditioning, and network theory. Psychiatric Annals, 18, 182-189.
43. REVONSUO, A. (2000). The reinterpretation of dreams: An evolutionary hypothesis of the function of dreaming. Behavioral & Brain Sciences, 23, 1083-1121.
44. RUBIN, D. C., & BERNTSEN, D. (2003). Life scripts help to maintain autobiographical memories of highly positive, but not highly negative, events. Memory & Cognition, 31, 1-14.
45. RUBIN, D. C., FELDMAN, M. E., & BECKHAM, J. C. (2003). Reliving, emotions, and fragmentation in the autobiographical memories of veterans diagnosed with PTSD. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 18, 17-35.
46. RUBIN, D. C., SCHRAUF, R. W., & GREENBERG, D. L. (2004). Stability in autobiographical memories. Memory, 12, 715-721.
47. RUBIN, D. C., & WENZEL, A. E. (1996). One hundred years of forgetting: A quantitative description of retention. Psychological Review, 103, 734-760.
48. SAFER, M. A., CHRISTIANSON, S.-Å., AUTRY, M. W., & ÖSTERLUND, K. (1998). Tunnel memory for traumatic events. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 12, 99-117.
49. SCHACTER, D. L., WAGNER, A. D., & BUCKNER, R. L. (2000). Memory systems of 1999. In E. Tulving & F. I. M. Craik (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of memory (pp. 627-643). New York: Oxford University Press.
50. SPENCE, D. P. (1988). Passive remembering. In U. Neisser & E. Winograd (Eds.), Remembering reconsidered: Ecological and traditional approaches to the study of memory (pp. 311-325). New York: Cambridge University Press.
51. TALARICO, J. M., & RUBIN, D. C. (2003). Confidence, not consistency, characterizes flashbulb memories. Psychological Science, 14, 455-461.
52. THOMPSON, C. P., SKOWRONSKI, J. J., LARSEN, S. F., & BETZ, A. L. (1996). Autobiographical memory: Remembering what and remembering when. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
53. VAN DER KOLK, B. A., & FISLER, R. (1995). Dissociation and the fragmentary nature of traumatic memories: Overview and exploratory study. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 8, 505-525.
54. WALKER, W. R., SKOWRONSKI, J. J., & THOMPSON, C. P. (2003). Life is pleasant - and memory helps to keep it that way! Review of General Psychology, 7, 203-210.
55. WEATHERS, F. W., LITZ, B. T., HUSKA, J. A., & KEANE, T. M. (1994). The PTSD checklist (PCL). Unpublished scale available from the National Center for PTSD.
56. WENZLAFF, R. M., & WEGNER, D. M. (2000). Thought suppression. Annual Review of Psychology, 51, 51-91.