Characteristics and content of intrusive memories in PTSD and their changes with treatment

Journal of Traumatic Stress

Volumn 17, Issue 3, 2004, Pages 231-240

  Hackmann, Ann ^a   Ehlers, Anke ^b   Speckens, Anne ^b   Clark, David M ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD   (United Kingdom)

^b KING'S COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

cognitive behavior therapy; flashbacks; intrusive memories; posttraumatic stress disorder; warning signal

Indexed keywords

ACUTE STRESS DISORDER; ADULT; ARTICLE; BEHAVIOR; CLINICAL ARTICLE; COGNITION; DISEASE EXACERBATION; DISTRESS SYNDROME; EMOTION; FEMALE; HUMAN; HYPOTHESIS; IMAGINATION; INJURY; MALE; MEMORY; PERCEPTION; STIMULUS; SYMPTOM; VIVID DREAM;

ADULT; COGNITIVE THERAPY; EMOTIONS; FEMALE; HUMANS; MALE; MEMORY; MIDDLE AGED; STRESS DISORDERS, POST-TRAUMATIC; WOUNDS AND INJURIES;

EID: 3042808340     PISSN: 08949867     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1023/B:JOTS.0000029266.88369.fd     Document Type: Article

References (31)

1. American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
2. Beck, A. T., & Steer, R. A. (1993). Beck Depression Inventory Manual. San Antonio, TX: The Psychological Corporation.
3. Brewin, C. R., Dalgleish, T., & Joseph, S. (1996). A dual representation theory of posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychological Review, 103, 670-686.
4. Charney, D. S., Deutch, A. Y., Krystal, J. H., Southwick, S. M., & Davis, M. (1993). Psychobiologic mechanisms of posttraumatic stress disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 50, 294-305.
5. Christianson, S. A. (1992). Emotional stress and eyewitness memory: a critical review. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 284-309.
6. Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hilsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
7. DeSilva, P., & Marks, M. (1999). Intrusive thinking in posttraumatic stress disorder. In W. Yule (Ed.), Post-traumatic stress disorder. Concepts and therapy (pp. 161-175). New York: Wiley.
8. Ehlers, A., & Clark, D. M. (2000). A cognitive model of posttraumatic stress disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 38, 319-345.
9. Ehlers, A., Clark, D. M., Hackmann, A., McManus F., & Fennell, M. (in press). Cognitive therapy for PTSD: Development and evaluation. Behaviour Research and Therapy.
10. Ehlers, A., Clark, D. M., Hackmann, A., McManus F., Fennell, M., Herbert, C., et al. (2003). A randomized controlled trial of cognitive therapy, self-help booklet, and repeated assessment as early interventions for PTSD. Archives of General Psychiatry, 60, 1024-1032.
11. Ehlers, A., Hackmann, A., & Michael, T. (in press). Intrusive reexperiencing in posttraumatic stress disorder: Phenomenology, theory, and therapy. Memory.
12. Ehlers, A., Hackmann, A., Steil, R., Clohessy, S., Wenninger, K., & Winter, H. (2002). The nature of intrusive memories after trauma: The warning signal hypothesis. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 40, 1021-1028.
13. Ehlers, A., & Steil, R. (1995). Maintenance of intrusive memories in posttraumatic stress disorder: A cognitive approach. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 23, 217-249.
14. Falsetti, S. A., Monnier, J., Davis, J. L., & Resnick, H. S. (2002). Intrusive thoughts in posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy: An International Quarterly, 16, 127-143.
15. First, M. B., Spitzer, R. L., Gibbon, M., & Williams, J. B. W. (1995). Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Axis I Disorders - Patient Edition (SCID-I/P, Version 2.0). New York: Biometrics Research Department of the New York State Psychiatric Institute.
16. Foa, E. B., Cashman, L., Jaycox, L., & Perry, K. (1997). The validation of a self-report measure of posttraumatic stress disorder: The Posttraumatic Diagnostic Scale. Psychological Assessment, 9, 445-451.
17. Foa, E. B., & Rothbaum, B. O. (1998). Treating the trauma of rape. Cognitive-behavior therapy for PTSD. New York: Guilford.
18. Foa, E. B., Steketee, G., & Rothbaum, B. O. (1989). Behavioral/cognitive conceptualisations of post-traumatic stress disorder. Behavior Therapy, 20, 155-176.
19. Foa, E. B., Zoellner, L. A., Feeny, N. C., Hembree, E. A., & Alvarez-Cobrad, J. (2002). Does imaginal exposure exacerbate PTSD symptoms? Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 70, 1022-1028.
20. Holman, E. A., & Silver, R. C. (1998). Getting "stuck" in the past: Temporal orientation and coping with trauma. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1146-1163.
21. Joseph, S., Williams, R., & Yule, W. (1997). Understanding posttraumatic stress. A psychosocial perspective on PTSD and treatment. Chichester, UK: Wiley.
22. Keane, T. M., Zimmerling, R. T., & Caddell, J. M. (1985). A behavioral formulation of post-traumatic stress disorder in Vietnam veterans. The Behavior Therapist, 8, 9-12.
23. Kilpatrick, D. G., & Veronen, L. J. (1983). Treatment of rape-related problems: Crisis intervention is not enough. In L. Cohen, W. Clairborn, & G. Specter (Eds.), Crisis intervention (pp. 165-185). New York: Human Services Press.
24. Mellman, T. A., & Davis, G. C. (1985). Combat-related flashbacks in posttraumatic stress disorder: Phenomenology and similarity to panic attacks. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 46, 379-382.
25. Michael, T., Ehlers, A., Halligan, S. L., & Clark, D.M. (2004). Unwanted memories of assault: What intrusion characteristics are associated with PTSD? Manuscript submitted for publication.
26. Murray, J., Ehlers, A., & Mayou, R. A. (2002). Dissociation and posttraumatic stress disorder: Two prospective studies of road traffic accident victims. British Journal of Psychiatry, 180, 363-368.
27. Reynolds, M., & Brewin, C. R. (1998). Intrusive cognitions, coping strategies and emotional responses in depression, post-traumatic stress disorder and a non-clinical population. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 36, 135-147.
28. Reynolds, M., & Brewin, C. R. (1999). Intrusive memories in depression and posttraumatic stress disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 37, 201-215.
29. Speckens, A., Ehlers, A., Hackmann, A., & Clark, D. M. (2004). Changes in intrusive memories in intrusive memories associated with imaginal reliving in posttraumatic stress disorder. Manuscript submitted for publication.
30. Van der Kolk, B. A., & Fisler, R. (1995). Dissociation and the fragmentary nature of traumatic memories: Overview and exploratory study. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 8, 505-525.
31. van Etten, M. L., & Taylor, S. (1998). Comparative efficacy of treatments for post-traumatic stress disorder: A meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 5, 126-144.