Community-onset Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhoea not associated with antibiotic usage - Two case reports with review of the changing epidemiology of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhoea

Netherlands Journal of Medicine

Volumn 66, Issue 5, 2008, Pages 207-211

  Bauer, M P ^a   Goorhuis, A ^a   Koster, T ^b   Numan Ruberg, S C ^a   Hagen, E C ^c   Debast, S B ^c   Kuijper, E J ^a   van Dissel, J T ^a  

^a LEIDEN UNIVERSITY MEDICAL CENTER   (Netherlands)

^b GROENE HART HOSPITAL   (Netherlands)

^c MEANDER MEDICAL CENTER   (Netherlands)

Author keywords

Clostridium difficile; Community acquired diarrhoea; Passive immunotherapy

Indexed keywords

BACTERIUM ANTIBODY; CLOSTRIDIUM DIFFICILE ANTIBODY; IMMUNOLOGIC AGENT; METRONIDAZOLE; VANCOMYCIN;

ABDOMINAL PAIN; ADULT; AGED; ANTIBIOTIC THERAPY; ARTICLE; BACTERIAL INFECTION; CASE REPORT; CLINICAL FEATURE; CLOSTRIDIUM DIFFICILE; COMMUNICABLE DISEASE; EPIDEMIC; FEMALE; HUMAN; INFECTIOUS DIARRHEA; MALE; MILK; NAUSEA AND VOMITING;

ADULT; AGED; ANTI-BACTERIAL AGENTS; CLOSTRIDIUM DIFFICILE; CLOSTRIDIUM INFECTIONS; COMMUNITY-ACQUIRED INFECTIONS; DIARRHEA; ENTEROCOLITIS, PSEUDOMEMBRANOUS; FEMALE; HUMANS; MALE; RISK FACTORS;

EID: 44649093282     PISSN: 03002977     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (49)

1. McDonald LC, Killgore GE, Thompson A, et al. An epidemic, toxin gene-variant strain of Clostridium difficile. N Engl J Med 2005;353:2433-41.
2. Pépin J, Saheb N, Coulombe M-A, et al. Emergence of fluoroquinolones as the predominant risk factor for Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea: a cohort study during an epidemic in Quebec. Clin Inf Dis 2005;41:1254-60.
3. Van Steenbergen J, Debast S, van Kregten E, van den Berg R, Notermans D, Kuijper E. Isolation of Clostridium difficile ribotype 027, toxinotype III in the Netherlands after increase in C. difficile-associated diarrhea. Eurosurveillance Wkly 2005;10.
4. Kuijper EJ, Coignard B, Tüll P; the ESCMID Study Group for Clostridium difficile. Emergence of Clostridium difficile-associated disease in North America and Europe. Clin Microbiol Infect 2006;12(Suppl 6):2-18.
5. Kato H, Ito Y, van den Berg RJ, Kuijper EJ, Arakawa Y. First isolation of Clostridium difficile in Japan. Eurosurveillance Wkly 2007;12(1).
6. McFarland LV, Mulligan ME, Kwok, RY, Stamm WE. Nosocomial acquisition of Clostridium difficile infection. N Engl J Med 1989;320:204-10.
7. Bignardi GE. Risk factors for Clostridium difficile infection. J Hosp Infect 1998;40:1-15.
8. Pépin J, Valiquette L, Cossette B. Mortality attributable to nosocomial Clostridium difficile-associated disease during an epidemic caused by a hypervirulent strain in Quebec. Can Med Assoc J 2005;173:1037-42.
9. Yip C, Loeb M, Salama S, Moss L, Olde J. Quinolone use as a risk factor for nosocomial Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2001;22:572-5.
10. McKusker ME, Harris AD, Perencevich E, Roghmann M-C. Fluoroquinolone use and Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea. Emerg Infect Dis 2003;9:730-3.
11. Gaynes R, Rimland D, Killum E, et al. Outbreak of Clostridium difficile infection in a long-term care facility: association with gatifloxacin use. Clin Inf Dis 2004;38:640-5.
12. Palmore TN, Sohn S, Malak SF, Eagan J, Sepkowitz KA. Risk factors for acquisition of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea among outpatients at a cancer hospital. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2005;26:680-4.
13. Modena S, Bearelly D, Swartz K, Friedenberg FK. Clostridium difficile among hospitalized patients receiving antibiotics: a case-control study. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2005;26:685-90.
14. Muto CA, Pokrywka M, Shutt K, et al. A large outbreak of Clostridium difficile-associated disease with an unexpected proportion of deaths and colectomies at a teaching hospital following increased fluoroquinolone use. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2005;26:273-80.
15. Asha NJ, Tompkins D, Wilcox MH. Comparative analysis of prevalence, risk factors, and molecular epidemiology of antibiotic-associated diarrhea due to Clostridium difficile, Clostridium perfringens, and Staphylococcus aureus. J Clin Microbiol 2006;44:2785-91.
16. Raveh D, Rabinowitz B, Breuer GS, Rudensky B, Yinnon AM. Risk factors for Clostridium difficile toxin-positive nosocomial diarrhea. Int J Antimicrob Ag 2006;28:231-7.
17. Gifford AH, Kirkland KB. Risk factors for Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea on an adult hematology-oncology ward. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2006;25:751-5.
18. Biller P, Shank B, Lind L, et al. Moxifloxacin therapy as a risk factor for Clostridium difficile-associated disease during an outbreak: attempts to control a new epidemic strain. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2007;28:198-201.
19. Dial S, Delaney JAC, Barkun AN, Suissa S. Use of gastric acid-suppressive agents and the risk of community-acquired Clostridium difficile-associated disease. JAMA 2005;294(23):2989-95.
20. McFarland LV, Surawitz CM, Stamm WE. Risk factors for Clostridium difficile carriage and Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea in a cohort of hospitalized patients. J Infect Dis 1990;162:678-84.
21. Sheck FW, Stacey BSF, Rendell J, Hellier MD, Hanson PJV. The rise of Clostridium difficile: the effect of length of stay, patient age and antibiotic use. J Hosp Infect 2000;45:235-7.
22. Kyne L, Sougioultzis S, McFarland LV, Kelly CP. Underlying disease severity as a major risk factor for nosocomial Clostridium difficile diarrhea. Infect Cont Hosp Epidemiol 2002;23:653-9.
23. Warny M, Vaerman J-P, Avesani V, Delmée M. Human antibody response to Clostridium difficile toxin A in relation 10 clinical course of infection. Infect Immun 1994;62:384-9.
24. Kyne L, Warny M, Qamar A, Kelly CP. Association between antibody response to toxin A and protection against recurrent Clostridium difficile diarrhea. Lancet 2001:357:189-93.
25. Aronsson B, Granström M, Möllby R, Nord CE. Serum antibody response to Clostridium difficile toxins in patients with Clostridium difficile diarrhoea. Infection 1985;13:97-101.
26. Dallal RM, Harbrecht BG, Boujoukas AJ, et al. Fulminant Clostridium difficile: an underappreciated and increasing cause of death and complications. Ann Surg 2002;235:363-72.
27. Pépin J, Valiquette L, Alary ME, et al. Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea in a region of Quebec from 1991 to 2003: a changing pattern of disease severity. CMAJ 2004;171:466-72.
28. McDonald LC, Owings M, Jernigan DB. Clostridium difficile infection in US short-stay hospitals, 1996-2003. Emerg Infect Dis 2006;12:409-15.
29. Long S, Fenelon L, Fitzgerald S, et al. First isolation and report of clusters of Clostridium difficile PCR 027 cases in Ireland. Eurosurveillance Wkly 2007;12(4).
30. Indra A, Huhulescu S, Hasenberger P, et al. First isolation of Clostridium difficile PCR ribotype 027 in Austria. Eurosurveillance Wkly 2006;11(9).
31. Kuijper EJ, Coignard B, Brazier J, et al. Update of Clostridium difficile-associated disease due to PCR ribotype 027 in Europe. Euro Surveill 2007;12:3-5.
32. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Severe Clostridium difficile-associated disease in populations previously at low risk: four states, 2005. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2005;54(23):1201-5.
33. Kyne L, Merry C, OÇonnell B, Keane C, O'Neill D. Community-acquired Clostridium difficile infection. J Infect 1998; 36:287-8.
34. Wheeler JG, Sethi D, Cowden JM, et al. Study of infectious intestinal disease in England: rates in the community, presenting to general practice, and reported to national surveillance. BMJ 1999;318:1046-50.
35. Paltansing S, van den Berg RJ, Guseinova RA, Visser CE, van der Vorm ER, Kuijper EJ. Characteristics and incidence of Clostridium difficile-associated disease, The Netherlands, 2005. Clin Microbiol 2007;13:1058-64.
36. Karlström O, Fryklund B, Tullus K, Burman LG. A prospective nationwide study of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea in Sweden. The Swedish C. difficile Study Group. Clin Infect Dis 1998;26:141-5.
37. Weil H-P, Fischer-Brügge U,.Harmanus C, Mattner F, Gastmeier P, Kuijper EJ. High incidence of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea with a community onset in a hyperendemic region in Germany [Oral presentation]. ECCMID, Munich, 2007.
38. Rupnik M. Is Clostridium difficile-associated infection a potentially zoonotic and foodborne disease? Clin Microbiol Infect 2007;13:457-9.
39. O'Neill G, Adams JE, Bowman RA, Riley TV. A molecular characterization of Clostridium difficle isolates from humans, animals and their environments. Epidemiol Infect 1993;111:257-64.
40. Songer JG, Anderson MA. Clostridium difficile: An important pathogen of food animals. Anaerobe 2005;12:1-4.
41. Arroyo LG, Kruth SA, Willey BM, Stämpfli HR, Low DE, Weese JS. PCR ribotyping of Clostridium difficile isolates from human and animal sources. J Med Microbiol 2005;54:163-6.
42. Rodriguez-Palacios A, Stämpfli HR, Duffield T, et al. Clostridium difficile PCR ribotypes in calves, Canada. Emerg Infect Dis 2006;12:1730-6.
43. Rodriguez-Palacios A,Stämpfli HR, Duffield T, Weese JS. Clostridium difficile in Retail Ground Meat. Canada. Emerg Infect Dis 2007;13:485-7.
44. McFarland L. Alternative treatments for Clostridium difficile disease: what really works? J Med Microbiol 2005;54:101-11.
45. http://www.genzyme.com/corp/media/GENZ%20PR-070607.asp
46. Van Dissel JT, de Groot N, Hensgens CMH, et al. Bovine antibody-enriched whey to aid in the prevention of a relapse of Clostridium difficile associated diarrhoea: preclinical and preliminary clinical data. J Med Microbiol 2005;54:197-205.
47. Young KWH, Munro IC, Taylor SL, Veldkamp P, van Dissel JT. The safety of whey protein concentrate derived from the milk of cows immunized against Clostridium difficile. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2007;47:317-26.
48. Numan S, Veldkamp P, Kuijper EJ, van den Berg RJ, van Dissel JT. Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea: bovine anti-Clostridium difficile whey protein to help aid the prevention of relapses. Gut 2007;56:888-9.
49. Riley TV, Wetherall F, Bowman J, Mogyorosy J, Colledge CL. Diarrheal disease due to Clostridium difficile in general practice. Pathology 19991;23:346-9.