The European Union as situation, executive, and promoter of the international law of cultural diversity - Elements of a beautiful friendship

European Journal of International Law

Volumn 19, Issue 2, 2008, Pages 241-275

  von Bogdandy, Armin ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 44449164442     PISSN: 09385428     EISSN: 14643596     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/ejil/chn009     Document Type: Article

References (322)

1. See, e.g., the Union's self-portrayal on its website, available at: http://europa.eu/languages/en/chapter/5 (30 Mar. 2007).
2. E.g., Dec 1983/2006/EC of the European Parliament and the Council of 18 Dec. 2006 on the European Year of Intercultural Dialogue, OJ (2006) L 412/44.
3. See Art. 6(3) TEU, Arts 87(3)(d) TEC and 151 TEC, Art. 22 Charter of Fundamental Rights.
4. As foreseen by Art. I-8 TCE; on the motto see Toggenburg, 'Unity in Diversity: Searching for the Regional Dimension in the Context of a Someway Foggy Constitutional Credo', in R. Toniatti, M. Dani, and F. Palermo (eds), An Ever More Complex Union (2004), at 27-56
5. Ruffert, in C. Calliess and M. Ruffert (eds), Verfassung der Europäischen Union (2006), Art. I-8, marginal number 12; this motto is already being used: See http://europa.eu/abc/symbols/motto/ index_en.htm (19 June 2007) now Declaration 52 to the Lisbon Treaty.
6. For details, see Haltern, 'Europäischer Kulturkampf', 37 Der Staat (1998) 591
7. Kraus, 'Cultural Pluralism and European Polity-Building', 41 JCMS (2003) 665
8. Galbreath, 'The Politics of European Integration and Minority Rights in Estonia and Latvia', in 4 Perspectives on European Politics & Society (2003), at 35-53, 36, and 49.
9. Institutionally, the pertinent research is located especially with the Institute for Minority Rights of the European Academy Bozen and with the European University Institute: See especially the references to the works of Gabriel Toggenburg and Bruno de Witte in this article.
10. This notion of situation corresponds to the one found in Art. 13 of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court: See Williams, in O. Triffterer (ed.), Commentary on the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (1999), Art. 13, marginal numbers 14 ff.
11. Wahl, 'Der einzelne in der Welt jenseits des Staates', in R. Wahl (ed.), Verfassungsstaat, Europäisierung, Internationalisierung (2003), at 53 ff.;
12. C. Möllers, Gewaltengliederung (2005), at 210.
13. Constitutionalism and instrumentalism are understood as alternative approaches that can be chosen according to the scienti. c interest and also combined. It is not asserted that the constitutional perspective on international law is always the adequate one.
14. On international constitutionalism, see Frowein, 'Konstitutionalisierung des Völkerrechts', 39 Berichte der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Völkerrecht (2000) 427
15. Uerpmann, 'Internationales Verfassungsrecht', 56 Juristenzeitung (2001) 565
16. Walter, 'Constitutionalizing (Inter)national Governance', 44 German Yrbk Int'l L (2001) 170
17. Bryde, 'Konstitutionalisierung des Völkerrechts und Internationalisierung des Verfassungsrechts', 42 Der Staat (2003) 61
18. Kadelbach and Kleinlein, Überstaatliches Verfassungsrecht', 44 Archiv des Völkerrechts (2006) 235
19. Kumm, 'The Legitimacy of International Law: A Constitutionalist Framework Analysis', 15 EJIL (2004) 907.
20. See Krisch, 'Imperial International Law', Global Law Working Paper 01/04, available at: www.nyulawglobal.org/workingpapers/detail/ GLWP_0104.htm (19 June 2007)
21. and 'International Law in Times of Hegemony: Unequal Power and the Shaping of the International Legal Order', 16 EJIL (2005) 369
22. J.L. Goldsmith and E.A. Posner, The Limits of International Law (2005).
23. The notion Union comprises the EC; see for details von Bogdandy, 'The Legal Case for Unity', 36 CML Rev (1999) 887.
24. For a critical inventory, see F. Hanschmann, Der Begriff der Homogenität in der Verfassungslehre und Europarechtswissenschaft (2008).
25. On the paired notions of multiculturalism and distinctiveness see de Witte, 'The Value of Cultural Diversity', in S. Millns and M. Aziz (eds), Values in the Constitution of Europe (forthcoming 2007).
26. On this premise, see von Bogdandy, 'The European Union as a Supranational Federation', 6 Columbia J European L (2000) 27,
27. 'Europäische und nationale Identität: Integration durch Verfassungsrecht?', 62 Veröffentlichungen der Vereinigung der Deutschen Staatsrechtslehrer (2003) 156, at 184 ff
28. and 'Constitutional Principles', in A. von Bogdandy and J. Bast (eds), Principles of European Constitutional Law (2006), at 3, 42 ff.
29. G.W.F. Hegel, Wissenschaft der Logik I (1923) (Orig. 1812), at 59
30. G. Jellinek, Das Recht der Minoritäten (1898), at 27, 28, and 30.
31. See, in particular, the vague definition in Art. 4(1) of the Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions of 20 Oct. 2005
32. Council Dec. 2006/515/EC of 18 May 2006 on the Conclusion of the Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions, OJ (2006) L 201/15
33. critical of the notion is Fuchs, 'Kulturelle Vielfalt im kulturpolitischen Alltag', in UNESCO heute online, Mar./Apr. 2006, available at: www.unesco-heute.de/0306/themen.htm (23 Apr. 2007)
34. more positive is Graber, 'The New UNESCO Convention on Cultural Diversity: A Counterbalance to the WTO?', 9 J Int'l Econ L (2006) 553, at 558.
35. Third recital, Arts 2 and 69(3) Federal Constitution of Switzerland.
36. Art. 27 Constitutional Act 1982: '[t]his Charter shall be interpreted in a manner consistent with the preservation and enhancement of the multicultural heritage of Canadians'.
37. Art. 36A (motto: 'United in diversity'); Art. 18A ('Diversity of Regions').
38. Fourth recital ('United in Diversity'); Arts 30 ff.
39. Especially in Latin America; see especially Art. 7 of the Colombian Constitution, Art. 2 of the Mexican Constitution, Art. 1 of the Ecuadorian Constitution, Art, 1 of the Bolivian Constitution.
40. See especially W. Kymlicka, Multicultural Citizenship: A Liberal Theory of Minority Rights (1995)
41. J. Tully, Strange Multiplicity: Constitutionalism in an Age of Diversity (1995)
42. C. Taylor, Multiculturalism: Examining the Politics of Recognition (1994).
43. Habermas, 'Kampf um Anerkennung im demokratischen Rechtsstaat', in J. Habermas (ed.), Die Einbeziehung des Anderen (1996), at 237, 239.
44. C.B. Graber, Handel und Kultur im Audiovisionsrecht der WTO - Völkerrechtliche, ökonomische und kulturpolitische Grundlagen einer globalen Medienordnung (2003), at 74.
45. Already in the 1970s, developing countries had tried to establish the related concept of cultural development internationally, but they were unsuccessful: See Art. 7 of the Charter of Economic Rights and Duties of States of 12 Dec. 1974, A/RES/29/3281.
46. The World Commission on Culture and Development that had been called for by the UNESCO General Conference in 1991 and authorized by the UN General Assembly in 1995 presented the report, 'Our Creative Diversity;' which established the notion of 'cultural diversity' internationally. According to the report, this diversity is a prerequisite for development and democracy and is threatened by the global media market.
47. In particular for a nation with global cultural aspirations: S. Regourd, L'exception culturelle (2002).
48. The idea of a diversity convention was advanced in 1999 by the Cultural Industries Sectoral Advisory Group on International Trade (SAGIT) of the Canadian Ministry for Foreign Affairs and International Trade; on the development see Bernier, 'A UNESCO International Convention on Cultural Diversity', in C.B. Graber, M. Girsberger and M. Nenova (eds), Free Trade versus Cultural Diversity: WTO Negotiations in the Field of Audiovisual Services (2004), at 65.
49. On the notion of 'diversity management' see Thürer, 'Minorities and Majorities: Managing Diversity', 15 Schweizerische Zeitschrift für Internationales und Europäisches Recht (2005) 659
50. J.W. Dacyl and C. Westin, Governance of Cultural Diversity (2000).
51. Apel, 'Anderssein, ein Menschenrecht?', in H. Hofmann and D. Kramer (eds), Anderssein, ein Menschenrecht. Über die Vereinbarkeit universaler Normen und ethnischer Vielfalt (1995), at 9-19
52. exactly in this sense see ECHR (Grand Chamber), Chapman v. UK (App No 27238/95) 33 EHRR (2001) 18, at para. 93.
53. The prevailing opinion requires for qualification as a minority that the group members possess the nationality of the state of residence: See Capotorti, 'Study on the Rights of Persons Belonging to Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities', UN Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/384/Rev.1 (1979), para. 57
54. Ermacora, 'The Protection of Minorities before the United Nations', 182 Recueil des Cours (1983) 247, at 305 ff.
55. If not nationality, then at least the stability of the residence: See M. Nowak, CCPR Commentary (2005), at Art. 27, marginal number 19 ff.
56. The Human Rights Committee on the other hand, includes migrants in the scope of application of Art. 27 ICCPR: General Comment 23, Art. 27, paras 5.1, 5.2 (UN Doc. CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.5 of 8 Apr. 1994)
57. in detail see Wolfrum, 'The Emergence of "New Minorities" as a Result of Migration', in C. Brölmann, R. Lefeber and M. Zieck (eds), Peoples and Minorities in International Law (1993), at 153
58. G. Dahm, J. Delbrück, and R. Wolfrum, Völkerrecht (2nd edn, 2002), i/2, at 278 ff;
59. Venice Commission, 'Report on Non-Citizens and Minority Rights', Strasbourg, 18 Jan. 2007, CDL-AD (2007) 001.
60. See the 6th recital to and Art. 1 of the Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity, available at: www.unesco.org/confgen/press_rel/ 021101_clt_university.shtml (21 May 2007)
61. 7th recital to the Diversity Convention, supra note 16
62. 6th and 7th recitals to the Framework Convention; Tomuschat, 'Protection of Minorities under Article 27 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights', in R. Bernhardt, W.K. Geck, G. Jaenicke, and H. Steinberger (eds), Völkerrecht als Rechtsordnung, internationale Gerichtsbarkeit, Menschenrechte (1983), at 952, 956, 958, and 961.
63. In detail, see von Bogdandy, 'Europäische und nationale Identität', supra note 14, at 160 ff.
64. Y.M. Donders, Towards a Right to Cultural Identity (2002)
65. Franck, 'Clan and Superclan', 90 AJIL (1996) 359, at 382 ff.
66. L. Niethammer, Kollektive Identitüt. Heimliche Quellen einer unheimlichen Konjunktur (2000) is most illuminating.
67. On these two notions, see de Witte, supra note 13, at 5.
68. Habermas, 'Inklusion - Einbeziehen oder Einschlie_ben? Zum Verhältnis von Nation, Rechtsstaat und Demokratie', in Habermas (ed), supra note 23, at 154, 164
69. W. Reese-Schäfer, Jürgen Habermas (3rd edn., 2001), at 129.
70. On the problem of 'cultural diversity' as a notion that effaces important distinctions, see below, Section 5.
71. Franck, supra note 34.
72. Taylor, 'Politik der Anerkennung', in C. Taylor (ed), Multikulturalismus und die Politik der Anerkennung (1997), at 13, 21, 24 ff, and 27 ff;
73. Habermas, 'Religiöse Toleranz als Schrittmacher kultureller Rechte', in J. Joerden and R. Wittmann (eds), Recht und Politik (2004), at 23-35, and 34.
74. 6th recital to the Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity, supra note 32
75. 3rd and 4th recitals to the Diversity Convention, supra note 16.
76. See Cholewinski, 'Migrants as Minorities: Integration and Inclusion in the Enlarged Union', 43 JCMS (2005) 695, at 701.
77. On the cultural implications, see de Whitte. 'The Cultural Dimension Law', 4 Collected courses of the Academy of European Law (1995), at 229.
78. In the case law there are no allusions to the Single Market endangering national cultures: See Joined Cases 60 and 61/84, Cinéethèque SA v Fédération nationale des cinémas frana̧ais [1985] ECR 2605
79. Case C-148/91, Vereniging Veronica Omroep Organisatie v Commissariaat voor de Media [1993] ECRI-487, at para. 9
80. Case C 379/87, Groener v Minister for Education and the City of Dublin Vocational Educatiom Committe [1989] ECR1-3967, at para. 18
81. Joined Cases C-338/04, C-359/04, and C-360/04, Criminal proceedings against Massimillian Placanica (C-338/04). Christian Palazzese (C-359/ 04) and Angelo Sorricchio (C-360/04) [2007] ECRI-1891, at para. 47.
82. BVerfGE 155.
83. See especially Case C-154/89. Commission v. France (Tourist guides [1991] ECR I-659
84. in detail see Craufurd Smith, 'European Community intervention in the Cultural Field: Continuity or Change?', in R. Craufud Smith (ed), Culture and European Union Law (2004), at 19, 28 ff.
85. De Witte, 'Language Law ofthe European Union: Protecting or Eroding Linguistic Diversity?', in ibid., at 205, 227
86. Toggenburg, 'Die Sprache und der Binnenmarktim Europa der EU', 1 European Diversity and Autonomy Papers-EDAP (2005), available at: www.eurac.edu/edap, at 17 ff
87. Palermo, 'The Use of Minority Languages: Recent Development in EC Law and Judgements of the ECJ', 3 Maastricht J European and Comp L (2001) 299, at 305 ff;
88. V. Bansh, Spachvorgaben im Binnenmarket: Sparchenveilfalt und Grundfreiheiten (2005), at 149 ff;
89. N, Nic Shuibhne, EC Law and Minority Language Policy: Culture, Citizenship and Fundamental Rights (2002), at 284 ff.
90. With a view to Art. 27 ICCPR, Cholewinski, supra note 42, at 709 ff;
91. Peers, "New Minorities": What Status for Third-Country Nationals in the EU Svstem?', in G.N. Toggenburg (ed.), Minority Protection and the Enlarged European Union: The Way Forward (2004), at 149, 160.
92. On this, see Special Issue 43 JCMS (2005), 'Migrants and Minorities in Europe'.
93. Cholewinski, supra note 42, at 697.
94. It is debatable whether this view is fully convincing; ef. for Canada Kymlicka, supra note 22, at 15.
95. Council conclusions of 19 Nov. 2004 on the 'Immigrant integration policy in the European Union', Council Doc. No. 14615/04, at 19 ff, paras 4 and 8.
96. The Council establishments 11 principles for integration policy, which are to safeguard the practice of cultures and religions in the sense of the Charter of Fundamental Rights; on this see Cholewinski, supra note 42, at 705 ff.
97. The integration perspective becomes apparent in positive law in the so-called 'Long-term residence Directive', Council Dir 2003/109/EC of 25 Nov. 2003 concerning the status of third-country nationals who are long-term residents, OJ (2004) L 16/44, in particular in the 4th and 12th recitals as well as in Arts 5(2) and 15(3).
98. Also the 4th recital to Council Dir 2003/86/EC of 22 Sept. 2003 on the right to family reunification, OJ (2003) L 251/12, argues for such a perspective. On the concept of integration underlying these legal instruments see Groenendijk, 'Legal Concepts of Integration in EU Migration Law', 6 European J Migration and L (2004) III.
99. Case C-540/03. European Parliament v. Council of the European Union (Family reunification) [2006] ECR I-5769.
100. However, the integration policy ofthe EU remains in need of being closely in spite of the general recognition of cultural diversity, since respect for the basic values of the EU called for in numeral 2 of the Council conclusions of 19 Nov. 2004 on the 'Immigrant integration policy in the European Union', Council Doc. No. 14615/04, at 19 ff, as well as the demand for a basic knowledge of the host society's language, history, and institution, in numeral 4 could also lead to n policy of assimilation, especially in the Western Europe', 30 West European Politics (2007) 1, at 3 ff;
101. Cholewinski, supra note 42, at 708 ff.
102. De Schutter and Verstichel, 'The Role of the Union in Integrating the Roma: Present and Possible Future', 2 European Diversity and Autonomy Papers EDAP (2005). available at: www.eurac.edu/edap.
103. Case C-148/02, Carlos Garcia Avello v Belgian State (2002) ECR I-1113, at para. 40.
104. On this see U. Haltern, Europarecht und das Politischu (2005) at 372 ff; this conforms to the logic of Art. 11(1) of the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities.
105. General Comment 23, supra note 31, at para. 6.2.;
106. van den Bogaert, 'State Duty Towards Minorities: Positive or Negative? How Policies Based on Neutrality and Non-discrimination Fail', 64 Zeitschrift für ausländisches öffentliches Recht und Völkerrecht (2004) 37, at 42.
107. On the interaction of the courts, see Scheeck. 'The Relationship between the Europe Courts and Integratuon through Human Rights', 65 Zeitschrift für auslädisches öffentliches Recht und Völkerrecht (2005) 837.
108. In this sense, Georg Jellinek focuses his analysis of the minority problem on a minority's potential to disrupt the political collective: see Jellinek, supra note 15.
109. Habermas, supra note 23.
110. Such an attack is under way; see the legal action before the Federal Constitutional Court of Germany by Peter Gauweiler, available at: http://www.petergauweiler.de/pdf/PresseerklaerungEUVerfassung31.10.06.pdf (24 Apr. 2007). It is likely to be upheld against the Lisbon Treaty. Apart from the German Federal Constitutional Court, the European Court of Human Rights or the Human Rights Committee could be a further instance of legal protection.
111. Dec 1982/2006/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 18 Dec. 2006 concerning the Seventh Framework Programme of the European Community for research, technological development and demonstration activities (2007-2013), OJ (2006) L412/1
112. ERC, The Ideas Work Programme. Final Version, Version agreed by the founding members of the ERC Scientific Council and transmitted to the Commission, 17 Jan. 2007, available at: gttp://erc.europa.eu/pdf/ ideas-wp-final.pdf (24 Apr. 2007)
113. on the language question see de Elera, 'The European Research Area', 12 ELJ (2006) 559
114. on this problem see also Schweizer and Kahl, 'Sprache als Kultur- und Rechtsgut', 65 Veröffentlichungen der Vereinigung der deutschen Staatsrechtslehrer (VVDStRL) (2006) 346, at 386
115. on the (meagre) possibilities for legal protection see Case C-361/01 P, Kik v. Office for Harmonisation in the Internal Market [2003] ECR I-08283.
116. In detail, see F. Meinecke, Weltbürgertum und Nationalstaat (2nd edn., 1911), at 7; K. Doehring, Völkerrecht (2nd edn. 2004), marginal number 779.
117. The idea of the key role of the state underlies the UNESCO Diversity Convention: See in particular Arts 1, 2, 5, and 6.
118. For a classic formulation, see Permanent Court of International Justice, SS Lotus, Judgment of 7 Sept. 1927, Series A, No. 10.
119. On sovereignty see Dahm, Delbrück and Wolfrum, supra note 31, i/1, at 218 ff;
120. U. Haltern, Was bedeutet Souveränität? (2007), at 75 ff.
121. See, e.g., Tuleja, 'Grundlagen und Grundzüge staatlichen Verfassungsrechts: Polen', in A. von Bogdandy, P. Cruz Villalón and P.M. Huber (eds), Handbuch Ius Publicum Europaeum (2007), i, para. 8, marginal number 62
122. Biernat, 'Offene Staatlichkeit: Polen', in ibid. (2008), ii, para. 21, marginal number 40.
123. On the limits set by international treaty law, see Permanent Court of International Justice Advisory Opinion of 5 Sept. 1931, Austro-German Customs Union Case, Series A/B, No. 41.
124. In detail, see Randelzhofer, 'Staatsgewalt und Souveränität', in J. Isensee and P. Kirchhof (eds), Handbuch des Staatsrechts (3rd edn., 2004), ii, ch. 17, at 143, 158
125. Louis, 'Le droit de retrait de l'Union européenne', 42 Cahiers de Droit Européen (2006) 293
126. von Bogdandy, 'Constitutional Principles', in von Bogdandy and Bast (eds), supra note 14, at 3, 30.
127. On the axiomatic question of the limitation of freedom of action under international law, see Kadelbach and Czapliński, in C. Tomuschat and J.-M. Thouvenin (eds), The Fundamental Rules of the International Legal Order (2006), at 21 and 83.
128. Art. 1 of the Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity, supra note 32
129. 2nd recital to the Diversity Convention, supra note 16; the Preamble to ILO Convention 169 Concerning Indigenous and Tribal Peoples in Independent Countries, 1650 UNTS (1991) 383 ff;
130. the Preamble to the UN Draft Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, UN Doc A/HRC/1/L.3 (23 June 2006).
131. On the notion of 'common heritage of mankind', see R. Wolfrum, Internationalisierung staatsfreier Räume (1984), at 336 ff and 'Common Heritage of Mankind', in R. Bernhardt (ed.), EPIL (1992), i/2, at 692-695
132. K. Baslar, The Concept of the Common Heritage of Mankind in International Law (1998), at 38 ff; Joyner, 'The Legal Implications of the Concept of Common Heritage of Mankind', 35 Int'l and Comp L Q (1986) 190.
133. In India - Quantitative Restrictions on Imports of Agricultural, Textile and Industrial Products, Panel Report WT/DS90/R of 6 Apr. 1999 and Appellate Body Report WT/DS90/AB/R of 23 Aug.1999 such limits of regional integration were discussed in the light of the WTO;
134. see in detail von Bogdandy and Makatsch, 'Collision, Co-existence or Co-operation? Prospects for the Relationship between WTO Law and European Union Law', in G. de Búrca and J. Scott (eds), The EU and the WTO (2001), at 131-150.
135. On the right to self-determination in this perspective, see Riedel, 'Gruppenrechte und kollektive Aspekte individueller Menschenrechte', 33 Berichte der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Völkerrecht (1994) 49, at 55 ff.
136. The development can be seen clearly in D. Thürer, Das Selbstbestimmungsrecht der Völker (1976), with an excursus to the legal question still entirely focused on decolonization;
137. in comparison to Thürer, 'Addendum 1998 on Self-Determination', in Bernhardt (ed.), supra note 69, (2000), iv, at 370 ff;
138. N. Wenzel, Das Spannungsverhältnis zwischen Gruppenschutz und Individualschutz im Völkerrecht (2007) is concise on the state of affairs.
139. See, in detail, Koskenniemi, 'National Self-determination Today: Problems of Legal Theory and Practice', 43 Int'l and Comp LQ (1994) 241.
140. Canadian Supreme Court, Secession of Quebec, 20 Aug. 1998, para. 111 ff, in particular 138 available at: http://scc.lexum.umontreal.ca/en/ 1998/1998rcs2-217/1998rcs2-217.html (20 Mar. 2007)
141. on the distinction between internal and external self-determination see Committee Against Racial Discrimination, General Recommendation 21 on the Right to Self-determination (23 Aug. 1996), para. 4
142. on possible exceptions because of grave repression, see Doehring, 'Self-determination', in B. Simma (ed.), The Charter of the United Nations: A Commentary (2nd edn., 2002), i,
143. Introductory Remark to Art. 2, para. 40; Murswiek, 'The Issue of a Right to Secession - Reconsidered', in C. Tomuschat (ed.), Modern Law of Self-determination (1993), at 21, 27, and 37
144. Pentassuglia, 'State Sovereignty, Minorities and Self-determination', 9 Int'l J Minority and Group Rights (2002) 303, at 311 is sceptical.
145. Certainly minority protection can also be seen as an aspect of the democratic principle: See in detail Section 3.
146. Wenzel. supra note 72, 178, n. 336 and accompanying text.
147. On this, see Frank, 'Individuals and Groups as Subjects of International Law', in R. Hofmann (ed.), Non-State Actors as New Subjects of International Law (1999), at 97, 110 ff.
148. For a summary of the case law, see Gilbert, 'The Burgeoning Minority Rights Jurisprudence of the European Court of Human Rights', 24 Human Rights Q (2002) 736
149. Benoit-Rohmer, 'La Cour Européenne des Droits de l'Homme et la défense des droits des minorités nationales'. 13 Revue Tritnestrielle des Droits de l'Homme (2002) 563.
150. See Case C-540/03, Parliament v. Council, supra note 51.
151. European statehood is argued for by J. Sack, 'Die Staatswerdung Europas - kaum eine Spur von Stern und Stunde', 44 Der Staat (2005) 67
152. D.C. Dicke, Das Verhältnis der Schweiz zum real existierenden West-europäischen Bundesstaat (1991), at 51 ff;
153. Maione, 'The European Community as a Regulatory State', in Acadamey of European Law (ed.), Collected Courses of the Academy of European Law (1994), v. bk I, at 321
154. for the argument aganist statehood, see von Bogdandy, 'The Prospect of a European Republic. What European Citizens Are Voting On', 42 CMLRev (2005) 913, at 921 ff.
155. On the definition, seethe authors at supra note 31.
156. In the Ballantyne case there is consent that the notion of minority of Art. 27 ICCPR requires opposition to a majority society: See Human Rights Committee. UN Doc CCPR/C/47/D/359/1989, Ballantyne, Decision of 5 May 1993, para. 11.2.
157. See also the individual opinions of Committee members Evatt, Ando, Bruni Celli and Dimitrijevic, ibid., at App E.
158. Lepsius, 'Die Europische Union als Herrschaftsverband eigener Prägung', in C. Joerges, Y. Mény and J.H.H. Weiler (eds), What Kind of Constitution for What Kind of Polity? (2000), at 203, 210 ff.
159. There is a reference in Toggenburg, 'Minorities ... the European Union: Is the Missing Link an "of" or a "within"?', 25 European Integration (2003) 273, at 275.
160. N. Nowak, CCPR Commentary (2nd edn., 2 05), Art. 27, marginal number 16.
161. Dahm, Delbrück and Wolfrum, supra note 31, 1/2, at 277.
162. On the procedural practice, see Mattila, 'Contested Decisions: Empirical Annlysis of Voting in the EU Council of Minister', 43 European J Political Research (2004)
163. Tsebelis and Yataganas, 'Veto-players and Decision-making in the EU After Nice', 40 JCMS (2002) 283.
164. In detail, see P. Dann, Parlamente im Exekutivföderalismus (2004).
165. Tomuschat, supra note 32, at 958.
166. Heintze. 'On the Legal Understanding of Autonomy'. in M. Suksi (ed.). Autonorny: Applications and Implications, (1998), at 7, 23.
167. Hitherto, the treaty practice regarding Art. 27 ICCPR has beeit light years away from the fate of national cultures in the integration process: See Human Rights Committee, UN Doc CCPR/C/13/D/24/1977, Lovelace, Dec of 30 July 1981
168. UN Doc CCPR/C/22/D/78/1980, Miknaq Tribal Society, Dec of 29 July 1984
169. UN Doc CCPR/C/33/D/197/1985, Kitok, Dec of 10 Aug. 1988
170. UN Doc. CCPR/C/52/D/511/1992, Länsman, Dec of 8 Nov. 1994
171. UN Doc. CCPR/C/60/D/612/1995, Jose Vicente et al., Dec of 29 July 1997.
172. [1997] II BGBI 1408.
173. Benz, 'Governance in Mehrebenensystemen', in G.F. Schuppert (ed.), Governance-Forschung (2nd edn. 2006), at 95
174. Trute, Denkhaus, and Kühlers, 'Governance in der Verwaltungsrechtswissenschaft', 37 Die Verwaltung (2004) 451.
175. This notion of governance is of an analytical nature, not to be confused with the normative term 'Good Governance'. On the latter see European Governance - A White Paper', COM(2001)428 final, 25 July 2001.
176. On the pertinent agreements see Nolte, 'Das Völkerrecht vor der Herausforderung der kulturetten Vielfalt', in von Bogdandy et al (eds) Berichte der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Völkerrecht (forthcoming, 2008).
177. Furthermore, the sometimes dramatic situation of the Romany people has attracted continuous attention: On this see Wolfrum, 'The Legal Status of Sinti and Roma in Europe: A Case Study Concerning the Shortcomings of the Protection of Minorities', 33 Annuaire européen (1985) 75
178. Guglielmo, 'Human Rights in the Accession Process: Roma and Muslims in an Enlarging EU', in Toggenburg (ed.), supra note 47, at 37.
179. Helsinki Final Act, 1 Aug. 1975, available at: www.osce.org/documents/ mcs/1975/08/4044_en.pdf (2 Apr. 2007).
180. The commencement is marked by the Concluding Document of 15 Jan. 1989 of the Vienna follow-up Meeting of 1986 (paras 18 and 19 of the Principles), the approaches of which have been developed mainly in the Document of the Copenhagen Meeting of 29 June 1990 (paras 30-40), but also in the Charter of Paris of 21 Nov. 1990 of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe, 30 ILM 190 (1991), at 5 ff.
181. No CSCE/OSCE decision can be qualified as an international legal commitment: See Höhn, Zwischen Menschenrechten und Konfliktprävention: Der Minderheitenschutz im Rahmen der Organisation für Sicherheit und Zusammenarbeit in Europa (OSZE) (2005), at 211 ff;
182. Buergenthal, 'The CSCE Rights System', 25 George Washington J Int'l L and Economics (1991) 333, at 378
183. against the predominant opinion, however, are Breitmoser and Richter, 'Die Verwirklichung der KSZE-Grundsätze zum Schutze nationaler Minderheiten durch Organleihe beim EGMR', 18 Europäische Grundrechtezeitschrift (1991) 141, qualifying part of the CSCE/OSCE decisions relevant to minority protection as non-universal general principles of law.
184. See www.uni-koeln.de/jur-fak/ostrecht/minderheitenschutz/Vortraege/ internationaler_minderheitenschutz_brunner.htm (24 Apr. 2007).
185. Conclusions of the Presidency of 21-22 June 1993 (SN 180/1/93), at 13.
186. 2nd bullet point of the Vienna Declaration of 9 Oct. 1993, available at: www.coe.am/en/docs/summits/vienna_summit.pdf (30 Mar. 2007).
187. On the interaction of the organizations see Toggenburg, 'The Union's Role vis-à-vis Minorities. After the Enlargement Decade', EUI Working Papers, Law No. 2006/15, available at: http://www.iue.it/PUB/LawWPs/law2006-15.pdf (27 Mar. 2007), at 24 ff.
188. Certainly, this reconstruction cannot treat all aspects of a sometimes tangled practice. The objective of the following considerations simply is to reveal the basic logic of this form of governance.
189. Bartram S. Brown, The United States and the Politicization of the World Bank (Kegan Paul, London, 1992).
190. Para. 2 of the Mandate of the High Commissioner on National Minorities. Helsinki Document. available at: www.osce.org/documents/mcs/1992/07/ 4046_en.pdf (01 June 2007), at 22 ff.
191. An early suggestion to put down the standards in a protocol to the ECHR and to submit them to the EC-tHR was unsuccessful: See on this Section 3B below.
192. R. Cooper, The Breaking of Nations (2003), at 71 ff.
193. This is not to say that there were no tensions between these organizations. In particular the Council of Europe has observed the expansion of the EU with obvious concern.
194. On this approach, see Möllers, supra note 8, at 253 ff;
195. von Bogdandy, 'Law and Politics in the WTO', 5 Max Planck Yrbk of UN L (2001) 609.
196. However, the criteria of Art. 0 in conjunction with Art. F TEU are already laid down in the CSCE document of 29 June 1990, Document of the Copenhagen Meeting of the Conference on the Human Dimension of the CSCE. para 1. available at: www.osce.org/documents/odihr/1990/06/13992_en.pdf
197. There are ways to include third countries, as the European Economic Area and the European Convention show. But the Union could not have assumed this task because of a lack of competence; it needs competence also for the formulation of international legal agreements: See Arts 24 and 38 TEU. On the reasons for the lack of a relevant competence see Section 3A. below.
198. Framework Convention of 1 Feb. 1995, which entered into force on 1 Feb. 1998; in detail on the negotiations see R. Hofmann. Minderheitenschutz in Europa. Völker- und staatsrechtliche Lage im Überblick (1995), at 200 ff; on the added value of the Framework Convention see S.S. Åkermark, The Added Value of the FCNM. The Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities: A Useful Pan-European Instrument? (forthcoming).
199. Sasse, 'Minority Rights and EU Enlargement: Normative Overstretch or Effective Conditionality?', in Toggenburg (ed.), supra note 47, at 59, 68, and 72. The European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages, which had only 21 parties by the end of Feb. 200 7, play only a subordinate role in this governance.
200. See especially OSCE 1996, The Hague Recommendations on the Education Rights of National Minorities; OSCE 1998, The Oslo Recommendations on the Linguistic Rights ofNational Minorities; OSCE 1999, The Lund Recommendations on the Effective Participation of National Minorities in Public Life, all available at: www.osce.org/henm/documents/
201. See, especially, Rec (2001)17E on improving the economic and employment situation of Roma/Gypsies and Travellers in Europe; Rec (2006)IOE of the Committee of Ministers to Member states on better access to health care for Roma and Travellers in Europe; Rec (2005)4E on improving the housing conditions of Roma and Travellers in Europe: Rec (2004)14E on the movement and encampment of Travellers in Europe; Rec (2000)4E on the education of Roma/Gypsy children in Europe; Rec (92)10E on the implementation of rights of persons belonging to national minorities, all available at: www.coe.int/T/CM/WCD/advSearch_en.asp (24 Apr. 2007).
202. See, especially, Rec. 1623 (2003) on the rights of national minorities; Rec 1557 (2002) on the legal situation of Roma in Europe; Rec 1492 (2001) on the rights of national minorities; Rec 1345 (1997) on the
203. In detail, see S. Rülke, Venedig-Kommission und Verfassungsgerichtsbarkeit (2003); Jowell, 'The Venice Commission: Disseminating Democracy through Law' [2001] Public L 675.
204. Galbreath. supra note. 5, at 44 ff; Sarv, 'Integration by Reframing Legislation: Implementation of the Recommendations of the OSCE High Commissioner on National Minorities to Estonia, 1993-2001', in W. Zellner, R. Oberschmidt and C. Neukirch (eds), Comparative Case Studies on Effectiveness of the OSCE High Commissioner on National Minorities (Core-Working Paper 7, 2002), at 29 ff, 41 ff, and 47 ff.
205. Smith, 'Western Actors and the Promotion of Democracy', in J. Zielonka and A. Pravda (eds), Democratic Consolidation in Eastern Europe: Volume 2: International and Transnational Factors (2001). at 31
206. Zielonka, 'Conclusions. Foreign Made, Democracy', in ibid., at 511.
207. Art. 26 of the Framework Convention, see in detail Hofmann, 'Das Überwachungssystem der Rahmenkonvention des Europarates zum Schutz nationaler Minderheiten', 2 Zeitschrift fr̈ Europarechtliche Studien (1999) 379.
208. For an extensive analysis ofthe role ofthe OSCE and of its High Commissioner, see Galbreath, supra note 5, at 36, 40 ff.
209. Para. 33 of the Mandate of the High Commissioner on National Minorities, Helsinki Document supra note 105, at 22 ff.
210. An example of this is the accession process of Croatia as a result of the Gotovina affair. For a detailed analysis see M. Rötting, Das verfassungsrechtliche Beitrittsverfahren zur Europäschen Union (2008) (unpublished PhD dissertation; on file with author). This question was also the focus of the Jessup Moot Court Competition 2007: see www.jessupmootcourt.de/2007/fall.html (24 Apr. 2007). Art. 230 TEC does not allow for a review by the ECJ, at the request of a candidate for accession, of infringements of Art. 49 TEU or of a provision of the association agreement.
211. Hofmann, 'The Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities: An Introduction', in M. Weller (ed.), The Rights of Minorities in Europe (2005), at 1, 5.
212. In detail see, Smith; 'The Use of Political Conditionality in the EU Relations with Third Countries', 3 European Foreign Affairs, Review (1998) 253; II. Grabbe, The EU's Transformative Power: Europeanization through Conditionality in Central and Eastern Europe (2006); Hughes, Sasse and Gordon, 'Couditionality and Compliance in the EU's Eastward Enlargement: Regional Policy and the Reform for Sub-national Governance', 42 JCMS (2004) 523 is more nuanced.
213. In detail. see E. Schmidt-Aßmann. Das allgemeine Verwaltungsrecht als Ordnungsidee. Grundlagen und Aufgaben der verwaltungsrechlichen Systembildung (2nd edn., 2004), at 235 ff.
214. Dann, 'Grundfragen eines Entwicklungsverwaltungsrechts', in C. Möllers, A. Voßkuhle and C. Walter (eds), Internationales Verwaltungsrecht (2007).
215. Declaration on Human Rights (Luxembourg European Council, 28-29 June 1991), Annex V, EC Bull (1991) 6. 1. 45; on this see F. Hoffmeisters Menschenrechts- und Demokratieklauseln in den vertraglichen Außenbeziehungen der Europäischen Gemeinschaft (1998), at 103.
216. E.g., Art. 2 of the Stabilization and Association Agreement between the European Communities and their Member States, of the one part, and the Republic of Croatia, of the other part, OJ (2005) L26/3.
217. P. Lucke, Internationaler Währungfonds (1997), at 97.
218. On the threshold of legal relevance, see Yearbook of the International Law Commision (1966), ii, at 245 ff: R.G. Wetzel and D. Rauschning (eds), The Vienna Convention on the Law of the Treaties: Travaux Préparatoires (1978), at 357 ff.
219. Krygier. 'Introduction'. in W. Sadurski. A. Czarnota and M. Krygier (eds). Spreading Democracy and the Rule of Law?: The impact of EU Enlargement on the Rule n1fLainic, Democracy and Constitutionalism in Post-Communist Legal Orders (2005), at 3, 12; this accusation has already been raised against the minority protection system established between the two World Wars; on this see Meijknecht, 'The Minority Protection System between World War I and World War II', in R. Wolfrum (ed.), Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law, Volume C 1 (forthcoming 2008).
220. In the light of the notorious difficulties of judging the real effects of norms, this contribution will confine itself to making 'well-founded assumptions': See on the problem G. Lübbe-Wolff, Rechtsfolgen und Realfolgen (1981)
221. particularly with regard to diversity protection see Sasse, supra note 113, at 61, 71.
222. In detail with regard to Croatia, see Rötting, supra note 123, at BIV 4 b; with regard to Hungary, see Sasse. supra note 113. at 74.
223. Ibid., at 64 ff;
224. more positively, see Küpper, 'Minority Rights', in F.J.M. Feldbrugge (ed.), Law in Transition (2002), at 81, 88.
225. This has been traced in detail by the EU Network of Independent Experts on Fundamental Rights, Thematic Comment No. 3: The Protection of Minorities in the European Union, 25 Apr., CFR-CDF.ThemComm2005.en, available at: http://ec.europa.eu/justice_home/cfr_cdf/doc/ thematic_comments_2006_en.pdf(2 Apr. 2007).
226. On the situation of Romania and Bulgaria see Communication from the Commission Monitoring report on the state of preparedness for EU membership of Bulgaria and Romania, COM(2006) 549 Sept. 2006, at 8, 25 ff, 47 ff, and 57.
227. In detail, see von Bogdandy, 'Zweierlei Verfassungsrecht. Europäisierung als Gefährdung des gesellschaftlichen Grundkonsenses?', 39 Der Staat (2000) 163.
228. Weiler, 'Fundamental Rights and Fundamental Boundaries', in J.H.H. Weiler, The Constitution of Europe (1999), at 102.
229. This does not preclude some Member States from aligning their fundamental rights with European parameters; on this see Huber, 'Offene Staatlichkeit: Vergleich', in von Bogdandy, Cruz Villalón and Huber (eds), supra note 64, ii, at 98 ff, para. 26.
230. The ECJ is accordingly very cautious: See Case C-432/1992, Anastasiou I [1994] ECR I-3116, at para. 47. Even in the Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe there is only a feeble reference to minorities and diversity within the states (Art. I-2 TCE); it does not provide for competences.
231. Kadelbach, 'Union Citizenship', in von Bogdandy and Bast (eds), supra note 14, at 453, 462
232. Case C-200/02, Kunqian Catherine Zhu and Man Lavette Chen v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2004] ECR I-09925, paras 37-39.
233. The Network, however, wants to apply the Discrimination Dir 2000/43/EC here and prevent a discriminatory naturalization policy; see EU Network of Independent Experts on Fundamental Rights, supra note 136, at 20 ff.
234. Examples of the abundant case law are Case C-184/99, Rudy Grzelczyk v Centre public d'aide sociale d'Ottignies-Louvain-la-Neuve [2001] ECR I-6193, at para. 46
235. Case C-209/03, The Queen, on the application of Dany Bidar v London Borough of Ealing and Secretary of State for Education and Skills [2005] ECR I-2119, at para. 56.
236. See the seminal contribution by Toggenburg, 'Who is Managing Ethnic and Cultural Diversity in the European Condominium?', 43 JCMS (2005) 717.
237. This is even more restrictive than the case law: See Case C-260/89, Elliniki Radiophonia Tiléorassi AE and Panellinia Omospondia Syllogon Prossopikou v. Dimotiki Etairia Pliroforissis and Sotirios Kouvelas and Nicolaos Avdellas [1991] ECR I-02925, at paras 41-45
238. Case C-479/04, Laserdisken ApS v Kulturministeriet [2006] ECR I-8089, at para. 61.
239. On the case law, see Kühling, 'Fundamental Rights', in von Bogdandy and Bast (eds), supra note 14, at 501, 527 ff.
240. Grote, 'The Struggle for Minority Rights and Human Rights: Current Trends and Challenges', in D. König, P.T. Stoll, V. Röben and N. Matz-Lück (eds), International Law Today: New Challenges and the Need for Reform? (2008), at 221.
241. This was the approach, however, of the Austrian draft of an additional protocol to the ECHR of 26 Nov. 1991 and the Bolzano draft by the Federal Union of European Nationalities of an additional protocol to the ECHR: See Hofmann, supra note 120, at 43.
242. See the 3rd and 8th recitals to and Art. 2 of Council Reg 168/2007 of 15 Feb. 2007 establishing a European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights, OJ (2007) L 53/1; see on an extensive interpretation of these provisions Toggenburg, 'Die Grundrechteagentur der Europäischen Union: Perspektiven, Aufgaben, Strukturen und Umfeld einer neuen Einrichtung im Europäischen Menschenrechtsraum', 12 MenschenRechtsMagazin (2007) 86, at 98 ff.
243. The suggestions of the EU Network of Independent Experts on Fundamental Rights, supra note 136, show which possibilities exist, based on the current legal situation, for developing this.
244. Alston and Weiler, 'An "Ever Closer Union" in Need of a Human Rights Policy', in P. Alston (ed.), The European Union and Human Rights (1999), at 3.
245. Their approach has decisively influenced the Comité des Sages and its 'Human Rights Agenda for the European Union for the Year 2000. Leading by Example', printed in ibid., Annex (after 917).
246. On this, see von Bogdandy, 'The European Union as a Human Rights Organization?', 37 CMLRev (2000) 1307, at 1310 ff. I now correct my critique in the light of the following considerations.
247. Alston and Weiler, supra note 149, at 14 ff.
248. Entirely in this sense then is the EU Network of Independent Experts on Fundamental Rights, supra note 136, in particular at 20 and 92 ff. The in. uence also shows in that the author, Olivier de Schutter, is closely connected with Philip Alston: P. Alston and O. de Schutter (eds), Monitoring Fundamental Rights in the EU: The Contribution of the Fundamental Rights Agency (2005).
249. Council Reg 1035/97, OJ (1997) L 151/1.
250. The EU Network of Independent Experts on Fundamental Rights, supra note 136, derives its standards from the universal human rights treaties, the conventions of the Council of Europe, international soft law instruments, and legal instruments of the Union, without further addressing their differing legal nature. It seems to be decisive that they suit a progressive policy. The Expert Network is even of the opinion that the Member States are bound to the Charter when implementing Union law: ibid., at 7.
251. Council Dir 2000/43/EC of 29 June 2000 implementing the principle of equal treatment between persons irrespective of racial or ethnic origin, OJ (2000) L 180/22. Similarly, EU Network of Independent Experts on Fundamental Rights, supra note 136, at 7 and 62
252. Art. 3(2) of Council Reg 168/2007, supra note 147, reads: 'The Agency shall refer in carrying out its tasks to fundamental rights as defined in Article 6(2) of the Treaty on European Union.'
253. On the possibilities of instituting, on the basis of Art. 7 TEU, a control mechanism with regard to the Member States see Communication from the Commission to the Council and the European Parliament of 15 Oct. 2003 on Art. 7 TEU: Respect for and promotion of values on which the Union is based, COM(2003)606, at 8; Schorkopf, in E. Grabitz and M. Hilf (eds), Das Recht der Europäischen Union. Kommentar I (looseleaf, 2004), Art. 7 TEU, marginal number 53 ff.
254. Wolfrum, 'Means of Ensuring Compliance with and Enforcement of International Environmental Law', 272 Recueil des Cours (1998) 9.
255. Toggenburg, supra note 143, at 730 and 732.
256. Resolution of the European Parliament of 16 Oct. 1981 on a Community charter of regional languages and cultures and a Charter of rights of ethnic minorities, OJ (1981) C 287/106; Resolution of the European Parliament of 11 Feb. 1983 on measures in favour of minority languages and cultures, OJ (1983) C 68/103; Resolution of the European Parliament of 30 Oct. 1987 on the languages and cultures of regional and ethnic minorities in the European Community, OJ (1987) C 318/160; Resolution of the European Parliament of 9 Feb. 1994 on the linguistic and cultural minorities in the European Community, OJ (1994) C 61/110; Resolution of the European Parliament of 13 Dec. 2001 on regional and lesser-used European languages, OJ (2002) C 177 E/334; Resolution of the European Parliament on the protection of minorities and anti-discrimination policies in the enlarged EU, OJ (2006) C 222/57.
257. Communication from the Commission on Immigration, Integration, and Employment of 3 June 2003, COM(2003)336; Communication from the Commission of 16 July 2004, First Annual Report on Migration and Integration, COM(2004)508.
258. Council Reg 1035/97, supra note 152.
259. The accessible documents do not contain information about a possible legal basis. According to Olivier de Schutter, the basis is Parliament Resolution 2000/2231 of 5 June 2001: See de Schutter and van Goethem, 'The Fundamental Rights Agency: Towards an Active Rights Policy of the Union', 4 ERA-Forum (2006) 587, at 587 and 589.
260. Toggenburg, 'Menschenrechtspolitik', in W. Weidenfeld and W. Wessels (eds), Jahrbuch der Europäischen Integration (2006), at 187.
261. See Art. 10 of Council Reg 168/2007, supra note 147.
262. In detail, see Oeter and Walker, 'The Case of the Federal Republic of Germany', in S.S. Åkermark, L. Huss, S. Oeter and A. Walker (eds), International Obligations and National Debates: Minorities around the Baltic Sea (2006), at 227.
263. In detail, see J. Bast, Grundbegriffe der Handlungsformen der EU (2006), at 389 ff.
264. What this might look like has been demonstrated by the ECJ in Case C-60/ 00, Carpenter v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2002] ECR I-06279
265. for a critique see Mager, 'Dienstleistungsfreiheit und Schutz des Familienlebens, Anmerkung zu der Entscheidung EuGH, Rs. 60/00 - Mary Carpenter', 58 JuristenZeitung (2003) 204, at 204.
266. The abatement of social exclusion including the integration of immigrants is a policy that is pursued within the framework of the 'open method of coordination': See Presidency Conclusions of the Lisbon European Council of 24 Mar. 2000, available at: http://ue.eu.int/ueDocs/ cms_Data/docs/pressdata/en/ec/00100-r1.enO.htm (13 June 2007)
267. Presidency Conclusions of the Barcelona European Council of 16 Mar. 2002, available at: http://ue.eu.int/ueDocs/cms_Data/docs/pressData/en/ ec/71025.pdf (13 June 2007)
268. K. Höchstetter, Die offene Koordinierung in der EU (2007), at 120. The migration policy was initially also pursued in the mode of open co-ordination: Communication from the Commission on an open method of co-ordination for the Community immigration policy of 11 June 2001, COM(2001)387 final.
269. On its first application see Presidency Conclusions of the Lisbon European Council of 24 Mar. 2000, supra note 166, no 7.
270. Sasse, supra note 113, at 80.
271. See in this sense EU Network of Independent Experts on Fundamental Rights, supra note 136, at 12 ff and 61 ff.
272. In detail see von Bogdandy and Bast, in Grabitz and Hilf (eds), supra note 155, Art. 5 TEC, marginal nos 3 and 7 ff.
273. Schorkopf, supra note 155. Art. 7 TEU. marginal number 13; Hoffmeister. 'Monitoring Minority Rights in the Enlarged European Union', in Toggenburg (ed.), supra note 47, at 85, 87, and 103.
274. For an interpretation of Art. 7 TEU entirely from the perspective of 'federal coercion' see Mangiameli, 'La clausola di omogeneità', in S. Mangiameli (ed.), L'ordinamento europeo. I principi dell'Unione (2006), at 1 and 33.
275. European Parliament dec of 18 Jan. 2006 setting up a temporary committee on the alleged use of European countries by the CIA for the transportation and illegal detention of prisoners, OJ (2006) C 287 E/159.
276. Bast, supra note 164, at 362 ff;
277. de Witte, 'The Constitutional Resources for an EU Minority Policy', in Toggenburg (ed.), supra note 47, at 107, 109, and 155 ff is critical of the mandate for Minority protection of the Network.
278. In detail, see von Bogdandy, 'The European Union as a Supranational Federation', supra note 14.
279. This is the Commission's opinion: See n. 3 of the Commission's Regular Report of 9 Oct. 2002, available at: http://www.fifoost.org/EU/ strategy_en_2002/index.php (14 June 2007),
280. see also the answer to question E-2538/01 (Vitorino), OJ (2002) C147 E/ 27, available at: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/site/en/oj/2002/ ce147/ce14720020620en00270028.pdf (14 June 2007), as well as the answer to question P-0395/02 (Reding), OJ (2002) C 160/214, available at: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/site/en/oj/2002/cel60/ cel6020020704en02140215.pdf (14 June 2007).
281. Also the case law of the EC-tHR indicates that the democracy principle comprises minority rights: See App No 44158/98. Gorzelik v Poland, 40 EHRR (2004) 4, at para. 57
282. App Nos 7601/76 and 7806/77, Young, James and Webster v. UK, 3 EHRR (2004) 20, at para. 63
283. App Nos 25088/94, 28331/95 and 28443/95, Chassagnou et al. v. France 29 EHRR (2000) 615, at para. 112.
284. Biaggini, 'Grundlagen und Grundzüge staatlichen Verfassungsrechts: Schweiz', in von Bogdandy, Cruz Villalón and Huber (eds). supra note 64. i, para. 10, marginal number 100
285. Dreier. 'Grundlagen und Grundzüge staatlichen Verfassungsrechts: Deutschland', in ibid., para. 1, marginal mumber 110
286. Gruerrero, 'Grundlagen und Grundzüge staatlichen Verfassungsrechts: Spanien', in ibid., para. 11, marginal number 77
287. Tuleja, supra note 64,
288. in ibid., para. 8 marginal number 62
289. also Cruz Villalón, 'Grundlagen und Grundzüge staatlichen Verfassungsrechts: Vergleich', in ibid., para. 13, marginal number 107
290. Besselink, 'Grundlagen und Grundzüge staatlichen Verfassungsrechts: Niederlande', in ibid., para. 6 marginal number 125
291. Halmai, 'Grundlagen und Grundzüge staatlichen Verfassungsrechts: Ungarn', in ibid., para. 12 marginal number 39
292. Huber, 'Offene Staatlichkeit: Vergleich', in ibid., para. 26, marginal number 19, 42, and 48
293. Haguenau-Moizard, 'Offene Staatlichkeit: Frankreich', in ibid.,, para. 15, marginal number 31.
294. In detail. see Höchstetter, supra note 166. at 231 ff.
295. Since the Luxembourg European Council of 1991, the human rights conditionality has been an integral component of EC foreign policy we in detail F. Hoffmeister, Menchenrechts- und Demockratieklausein in den vertraglichen Außenbeziehungen der Europäischen Gemeinschaft (1998)
296. on its limits see de Witte and Toggenburg, 'Human Rights and Membership in the European Union', in S. Peers and A. Ward (eds), The European Union Charter of Fundamental Rights: Law, Context and Policy (2004), at 59, 61 ff.
297. The foreign ministers of the EC Member States laid down guidelines on 16 Dec. 1991 according to which the recognition of new states depends upon minority protection; on this see Pellet, 'The Opinions of the Bad-inter Arbitration Committee: A Second Breath for the Self-determination of Peoples', 3 EJIL (1992) 178.
298. In detail, see Canicchioli, 'The European Community at the UNESCO: An Exceptionalty Active Observer?', in J. Wouters, F. Hoffmeister and T. Ruys (eds), The United Nations and the European Union: An Ever Stronger Partnership (2006), at 135
299. Ferri, 'EU Participation in tyhe UNESCO Convention in the Protection and Promotion of Cultural Expressions', 3 European Diversity and Autonomy Papers - EDAP (2005), available at: www.eurac.edu/documents/edap/ 2005_edap03.pdf (18 June 2007), at 21 ff
300. von Schorlemer, 'Kulturpolitik im Völkerrecht verankert', 53 Vereinte Nationen (2005) 217, at 220.
301. EU Press release IP/04/1377 of 17 Nov. 2004; on the internal proredure see the Code of conduct between the Council, the Member States, and the Commission on the UNESCO negotiations on the draft Convention on the protection of the diversity of cultural contents and artistic expressions, 5768/05 CULT 4 of 31 Jan. 2005, Council of the European Union, available at: http://register.consilium.europa.eu/pdf/en/05/st05/ st05768.en05.pdf (18 June 2007)
302. on the EU competence and the distribution of competences between Commission and Presidency see Ferri, supra note 180, at 11 ff.
303. See Letter from US Secretary of State (Condoleezza Rice) of 4 Oct. 2005, available at. www.iti-germany. de/kultvielfalt/pdf/ 4_e_2%20RiceLetter.pdf (18 June 2001)
304. Explanation of the Vote of the US on the Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions, available at: www.iti-germany.de/kultvielfalt/pdf/4_e_3Oliver.pdf (18 June 2007).
305. Loth, 'Der Weg nach Rom - Entstehung und Bedeutung der Römischen verträge', 30 Integration (2007) 36, at 37 ff.
306. Art. 27(3)(a) of the Diversity Convention, supra note 16.
307. Mückl, 'Paradigmenwechsel im europäischen Medienrecht: Von der Fernseh-Richtlinie zur Richtlinie über audiovisuelle Mediendienste', 121 Deutsches Verwaltungsblatt (2006) 1201
308. Kleist and Scheuer, 'Audiovisuelle Mediendienste ohne Grenzen', 9 MultiMedia und Recht (2006) 127 (Pt 1), and 206 (Pt 2)
309. on the problem of the admissibility under international law of the quotas, see von Bogdandy, 'Die Informations- und Unterhaltungsindustrie', in E. Grabitz, A. von Bogdandy and M. Nettesheim, Europäisches Außenwirtschaftsrecht (1994), at 571 and 589
310. in 2003, the 'Cancun Declaration on Cultural Diversity' appealed to the members of the WTO to respect cultural diversity: See www.ebu.ch/en/ union/newsarchives/2003/tcm_6-8195.php (18 Jine 2007).
311. It is disputed whether the Diversity Convention influences the admissibility under WTO law of TV quotas: See Hahn, 'A Clash of Cultures? The UNESCO Diversity Convention and International Trade Law', 9 J Int'l Economic L (2006) 515
312. Graber, supra note 16.
313. This may explain the failed attempt by the Commission to insert a'disconnection-clause' that would have shielded Union law from the Diversity Convention: See von Schorlemer, supra note 180, at 221.
314. Thus, Art. 6(2)(d), (e), and (h) allow for state measures supporting public institutions, notably with regard to public service broadcasting. On the problems under Union law of radio licence fees, see G. Schwendinger, Gemeinschaftsrechtliche Grenzen öffentlicher Rundfunkfinanzierung (2007), at 187 ff and 596 ff;
315. see also Evangelischer Pressedienst, 23 epd medien (2007) 13. Supra, Section 2C.
316. Jellinek, supra note 15, pp. 34 et seq., 40 et seq.
317. J.S. Mill, On Liberty and Considerations on Representative Government (1948), at 292.
318. Ennuschat, 'Der Leitspruch für Europa: Ιn Vielfalt geeint"' in K. Stern and P.J. Tettinger (eds), Europäische Verfassung im Werden (2006), at 111, 121 ff;
319. A. Leisner-Engensperger, Vielfalt - ein Begriff des öffentlichen Rechts (2004), at 78 and 137 ff.
320. Weiler. 'Federalism without Constitutionalism: Europe's Sonderweg' in K. Nicolaidis and R. Howse (eds). The Federal Vision: Legitimacy and Levels of Governance in the United State and the European Union (2001), at 54 and 65 ff; turthermore see de Búrca and Scott, 'Introduction', in de Búrca and Scott (eds), supra note 70, at 1.
321. Toggenburg, 'The Debate on European Values and the Case of Cultural Diversity', 1 European Diversity and Autonomy Papers - EDAP (2004), at 10 ff, available at: www.eurac.edu/documents/edap/ 2004-edap01.pdf (18 June 2007) is far-seeing but undecided.
322. Inspired by O. Lepsius, Die gegensatzaufhebende Begriffsbildung (1993), at 146 ff, who however treats a different topic.