Abiogenic methane in deep-seated mid-ocean ridge environments: Insights from stable isotope analyses

Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth

Volumn 104, Issue B5, 1999, Pages 10439-10460

  Kelley, Deborah S ^a   Früh Green, Gretchen L ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON   (United States)

^b ETH ZURICH   (Switzerland)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CARBON DIOXIDE; GABBRO; GEOCHEMISTRY; HYDROTHERMAL FLUID; METHANE; MID-OCEAN RIDGE; OCEAN DRILLING PROGRAM; VOLATILE ELEMENT;

INDIAN OCEAN; SOUTHWEST INDIAN RIDGE;

EID: 4444276616     PISSN: 21699313     EISSN: 21699356     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1029/1999jb900058     Document Type: Article

References (136)

1. Abrajano, T.A., N.C. Sturchio, J.K. Bohlke, G.L. Lyon, R.J. Poreda, and C.M. Stevens, Methane-hydrogen gas seeps, Zambales ophiolite, Philippines: Deep or shallow origin?, Chem. Geol., 71, 211-222, 1988.
2. 4, and other reduced carbon compounds with application to subseafloor hydrothermal systems, Eos, Trans. AGU, 79, 58-59, 1998.
3. Alt, J.C., and T. F. Anderson, Mineralogy and isotopic composition of sulfur in layer 3 gabbros from the Indian Ocean, Hole 735B, Proc. Ocean Drill. Program Sci. Results 118, 113-125, 1991.
4. Baross, J.A., and J.W. Deming, Growth at high temperatures: Isolation and taxonomy, physiology, and ecology, in The Microbiology of Deep-Sea Hydrothermal Vents , edited by D.M Karl, pp. 169-217, CRC Press, Baca Raton, Fla., 1995.
5. Berndt, M.E., R. Seal, II, W.C. Shanks III, and W.E. Seyfried Jr., Hydrogen isotope systematics of phase separation in submarine hydrothermal systems: Experimental calibration and theoretical models, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta., 60, 1595-1604, 1995.
6. 2 during serpentinization of olivine at 300°C and 500 bar, Geology, 24, 351-354, 1996.
7. Blank, J.G., J.R. Delaney, and J.D. Des Marais, The concentration and isotopic composition of carbon in basaltic glasses from the Juan de Fuca Ridge, Pacific Ocean, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 57, 875-887, 1993.
8. Bloomer, S.H., P.S. Meyer, H.J.B. Dick, K. Ozawa, and J.H. Natland, Textural and mineralogical variations in gabbroic rocks from Hole 735B, Proc. Ocean Drill. Program. Sci. Results. 118, 21-39, 1991.
9. Bohlke, J.K, and W.C. Shanks III, Stable isotope study of hydrothermal vents at Escanaba Trough, NE Pacific: Observed and calculated effects of sediment-seawater interaction, in Geologic, Hydrothermal, and Biologic Studies at Escanaba Trough, Gorda Ridge, Offshore Northern California , edited by J.L. Morton, R.A. Zierenberg, and C.A. Reiss U.S. Geol. Surv. Bull. 2022, 223-239, 1994.
10. Bottinga, Y., Calculated fractionation factors for carbon and hydrogen isotope exchange in the system calcite-carbon dioxide-methane-hydrogen-water vapor, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 33, 49-64, 1969.
11. 4 output, J. Geophys. Res., 98, 9643-9651, 1993.
12. Butterfield, D.A., G.J. Massoth, R.E. McDuff, J.E. Lupton, and M.D. Lilley, Geochemistry of hydrothermal fluids from Axial Seamount hydrothermal emissions study vent field, Juan de Fuca Ridge: Sub-seafloor boiling and subsequent fluid-rock alteration, J. Geophys. Res., 95, 12,895-12,921, 1990.
13. Butterfield, D.A., R.E. McDuff, M.J. Mottl, M.D. Lilley, J.E. Lupton, and G.J. Massoth, Gradients in the composition of hydrothermal fluids from the Endeavour segment vent field: Phase separation and brine loss, J. Geophys. Res., 99, 9561-9583, 1994.
14. Charlou, J.L., and J.-P. Donval, Hydrothermal methane venting between 12°N and 26°N along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, J. Geophys. Res., 98, 9625-9642, 1993.
15. 4 hydrothermal plume signatures: TAG site at 26°N and serpentinized ultrabasic diapir at 15°05 on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 55, 3209-3223, 1992.
16. Chernosky, J.V., Jr., R.G. Berman, and L.T. Bryndzia, Stability, phase relations, and thermodynamic properties of chlorite and serpentine group minerals, Rev. Mineral., 19, 295-346, 1988.
17. Christie, D.M., I.S.E. Carmichael, and C.H. Langmuir, Oxidation states of mid-ocean ridge basalt glasses, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 79, 397-411, 1986.
18. Craig, H., The geochemistry of the stable carbon isotopes, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 3, 53-92, 1953.
19. Craig, H., and J.E. Lupton, Primordial neon, helium, and hydrogen in oceanic basalts, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 31, 369-385, 1976.
20. Craig, H, and J.E. Lupton, Helium-3 and mantle volatiles in the ocean and in the oceanic crust, in The Sea, vol. 7, The Oceanic Lithosphere, edited by C. Emiliani, pp. 391-428 Jon Wiley, New York, 1981.
21. Deines, P., The carbon isotope composition of diamonds: Relationship to diamond shape, color, occurrence, and vapor composition, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 44, 943-996, 1980.
22. Delaney, J.R., D.W. Muenow, and M.O. Garcia, Abundance and distribution of water, carbon and sulfur in the glassy rims of submarine pillow basalts, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 42, 581-594, 1978.
23. Delaney, J.R., D.S. Kelley, M.D. Lilley, D.A. Butterfield, J.A. Baross, R. W. Embley, and M. Summit, The quantum event of oceanic crustal accretion: Impacts of diking at mid-ocean ridges, Science, 281, 222-230, 1998.
24. Deming, J.W., and J.A Baross, Deep-sea smokers: Windows to a subsurface biosphere?, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 57, 3219-3230, 1993.
25. Des Marais, D.J., Carbon abundance measurements in oceanic basalts: The need for a consensus, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 79, 21-26, 1986.
26. Des Marais, D.J., and J.G. Moore, Carbon and its isotopes in mid-oceanic ridge basaltic glasses, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 69, 43-57, 1984.
27. Des Marais, D.J., J.H. Donchin, M.L. Nehring, and A.H. Truesdell, Molecular carbon isotopic evidence for the origin of geothermal hydrocarbons, Nature, 292, 826, 1981.
28. Des Marais, D.J., M.L. Stallard, N.L. Nehring, and A.H. Truesdell, Carbon isotope geochemistry of hydrocarbons in the Cerro Prieto geothermal field, Baja California Norte, Mexico, Chem. Geol., 71, 159-167, 1988.
29. Dick, H.J.B, P.S. Meyer, S. Bloomer, S. Kirby, D. Stakes, and C. Mawer, Lithostratigraphic evolution of an in-situ section of oceanic crust, Proc. Ocean Drill. Program, Sci. Results, 118, 439-538, 1991.
30. Dixon, J.E., and E.M. Stolper, An experimental study of water and carbon dioxide solubilities in mid-ocean ridge basaltic liquids, II, Applications to degassing, J. Petrol. 36, 1633-1646, 1995.
31. 2O in Juan de Fuca Ridge basaltic glasses, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 90, 87-104, 1988.
32. Dixon, J.E., E.M. Stolper, and J.R. Holloway, An experimental study of water and carbon dioxide solubilities in mid-ocean ridge basaltic liquids, I, Calibration and solubility models, J. Petrol., 36, 1607-1631, 1995.
33. 2O system, II, Mixtures from 50 to 1000°C and 0 to 1000 bar, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 56, 2619-2631, 1992.
34. 2-bearing inclusions in three uranium deposits, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 52, 1155-1167, 1988.
35. Evans, E.C., L.D. White, and J.B. Rapp, Geochemistry of some gases in hydrothermal fluids from the Southern Juan de Fuca Ridge, J. Geophys. Res., 93, 15305-15313, 1988.
36. Fine, G.J., and E. M. Stolper, Dissolved carbon dioxide in basaltic glasses: Concentrations and speciation, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 76, 263-278, 1986.
37. Fisher, C.R., Toward an appreciation of hydrothermal-vent animals: Their environment, physiological ecology, and tissue stable isotope values, inSeafloor Hydrothermal Systems: Physical, Chemical, Biological, and Geological Interactions , Geophys. Monogr.Ser., vol. 70, edited by S.E. Humphris et al., pp. 297-316, AGU, Washington, D.C., 1995.
38. Fornari, D.J., and R.W. Embley, Tectonic and volcanic controls on hydrothermal processes at the mid-ocean ridge: An overview based on near-bottom and submersible studies, in Seafloor Hydrothermal Systems: Physical, Chemical, Biological, and Geological Interactions, Geophys. Monogr.Ser., vol. 70, edited by S. E. Humphris et al., pp 1-46, AGU, Washington, D.C., 1995.
39. Frantz, J.D., Y.G. Zhang, D.D. Hickmott, and T.C. Hoering, Hydrothermal reactions involving equilibrium between minerals and mixed volatiles, 1, Techniques for experimentally loading and analyzing gases and their application to synthetic fluid inclusions, Chem. Geol., 76, 57-70, 1989.
40. 2 as determined with the use of synthetic fluid inclusions in conjunction with mass spectrometry, Chem. Geol. 98, 237-256, 1992.
41. Frost, B.R., On the stability of sulfides, oxides, and native metals in serpentinite, J. Petrol., 26, 31-63, 1985.
42. Früh-Green, G.L., A. Plas, and C. Lécuyer, Petrologic and stable isotope constraints on hydrothermal alteration and serpentinization of the EPR shallow mantle at Hess Deep (Site 895), Proc. Ocean Drill. Program Sci. Results, 147, 255-292, 1996.
43. Gerlach, T.M., and B.E. Nordlie, The C-O-H-S gaseous system, 1, Composition limits and trends in basaltic cases, Am. J. Sci., 275, 353-376, 1975.
44. Gerlach, T.M., and B.E. Taylor, Carbon isotope constraints on degassing of carbon dioxide from Kilauea volcano., Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 54, 2051-2058, 1990.
45. Giggenbach, W.F., Geothermal gas equilibria, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 44, 2021-2032, 1980.
46. 4 under geothermal conditions, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 46, 159-165, 1982.
47. Gold, T.H., Terrestrial sources of carbon and earthquake outgassing, J. Petrol., 1, 3-19, 1979.
48. Gold, T. H., The deep, hot biosphere, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 89, 6045-6049, 1992.
49. Gold, T., and S. Soter, Abiogenic methane and the origin of petroleum, Energy Explor. Exploit., 1, 89-104, 1982.
50. Haggerty, J.A., Fluid inclusion studies of chimneys associated with serpentinite seamounts in the Mariana Forearc, paper presented at Second Pan-American Reserch on Fluid Inclusions, Socorro, NM, 29, 1989.
51. Hilton, D.R., The helium and carbon isotope systematics of a continental geothermal system: Results from monitoring studies at Long Valley caldera (California, U.S.A.), Chem. Geol., 127, 297-311, 1996.
52. Hoefs, J., Ein Beitrag zur Isotopengeochemie des Kohlenstoffs in magmatischen Gesteinen. Contrib. Mineral. Petrol., 41, 277-300, 1973.
53. 2 from fluid inclusions, Fortschr. Mineral. 52, 475-478, 1975.
54. 2 equilibria at low-grade metamorphic conditions, Geology, 12, 455-458, 1984.
55. Holloway, J.R., and J.G. Blank, Application of experimental results to C-O-H species in natural melts, in Volatiles and Magmas, Rev, Mineral., edited by M.R. Caroll and J.R. Holloway, Mineral Soc. of Am., vol 30, pp 187-230, Washington D.C., 1994.
56. Horibe, Y., and H. Craig, D/H fractionation in the system methane-hydrogen-water, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 59, 5209-5217, 1995.
57. Hulston, J.R., and W.J. McCabe, Mass spectrometer measurements in the thermal areas of New Zealand, 1, Carbon dioxide and residual gas analyses, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 26, 383-397, 1962.
58. Ishibashi, J., Y. Sano, H. Waiita, T. Gamo, M Tsutsumi, and H. Sakai, Helium and carbon geochemistry of hydrothermal fluids from the Mid-Okinawa Trough back arc basin, southwest of Japan, Chem. Geol., 123, 1-15, 1995.
59. Jambon, A., Earth degassing and large-scale geochemical cycling of volatile elements, in Volatiles in Magmas, Rev. Mineral, vol 30, edited by M.R. Caroll and J.R. Holloway, pp. 479-517, Mineral. Soc. of Am., Washington D.C., 1995.
60. Janecky, D.R., and W.E. Seyfried Jr., Hydrothermal serpentinization of peridotite within the oceanic crust: Experimental investigations of mineralogy and major element geochemistry, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 50, 1357-1378, 1986.
61. Jannasch, H.W., Microbial interactions with hydrothermal fluids, in Seafloor Hydrothermal Systems: Physical, Chemical, Biological, and Geological Interactions , edited by S. E. Humphris et al, Geophys. Monogr. Ser., vol. 70, pp. 273-296, AGU, Washington D.C., 1995
62. Javoy, M., and F. Pineau, The volatile record of a "popping" rock from the Mid-Atlantic Ridge at 14°N: Chemical and isotopic composition of gas trapped in the vesicles, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 107, 598-611, 1991.
63. 2 and carbon dissolved in a tholeiitic magma: Preliminary results, Contrib. Minal. Petrol., 67, 35-39, 1978.
64. Javoy M., F. Pineau, and H. Delorme, Carbon and nitrogen isotopes in the mantle, Chem. Geol., 57, 41-62, 1986.
65. Kelley, D.S., The influence of spreading rate on fluid evolution in submarine magma-hydrothermal systems, Eos Trans. AGU, 75 (44), 649, Fall Meet. Suppl., 1994.
66. Kelley, D.S., Methane-rich fluids in the oceanic crust, J. Geophys. Res., 101, 2943-2962, 1996.
67. Kelley, D.S., Fluid evolution in slow-spreading environments, Proc. Ocean Drill. Program, Sci. Results, 153, 399-415, 1997.
68. Kelley, D.S., K.M. Gillis, and G. Thompson, Fluid evolution in submarine magma-hydrothermal systems at the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, J. Geophys Res., 98, 19,579-19,596, 1993.
69. Kelley, D.S., D.A. Vanko, and C. Gu, Fluid evolution in oceanic crustal layer 2: Fluid inclusion evidence from the sheeted dike complex, Hole 504B, Costa Rica Rift, Proc. Ocean Drill Program Sci. Results, 140, 191-198, 1995.
70. 3He concentrations in hydrothermal plumes associated with the 1996 Gorda Ridge eruptive event, Deep-Sea Res., Part II, 45, 2665-2682., 1999.
71. Kennicutt, M.C., R.A. Burke, I.R. Macdonald, J.M. Brooks, G.J. Denoux, and S.A. Macko, Stable isotope partitioning in seep and vent organisms-chemical and ecological significance, Chem. Geol., 101, 293-310, 1992.
72. Kim, K.R., J.A. Welhan, and H. Craig, The hydrothermal vent fields at 13°N and 11°N on the EPR: Alvin 1984 results, Eos Trans. AGU, 65, 973, 1984.
73. Konnerup-Madsen, J., J. Debussy, and J. Rose-Hansen, Combined Raman microprobe spectrometry and microthermometry of fluid inclusions in minerals from igneous rocks of the Gardar province (south Greenland), Lithos., 18, 271-280, 1985.
74. Kyser, T.K., and J.R. O'Neil, Hydrogen systematics of submarine basalts, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 48, 2123-2133, 1984.
75. 2O-NaCl system at 1 kbar, 400 to 600°C using synthetic fluid inclusions, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 60, 1885-1897, 1996.
76. Lilley, M.D., J.A. Baross, and L.I. Gordon, Reduced gases and bacteria in hydrothermal fluids: The Galapagos spreading center and 21°N East Pacific Rise, in Hydrothermal Processes at Seafloor Spreading Centers , edited by P.A. Rona et al., pp. 411-447, Plenum, New York, 1983.
77. Lilley, M.D., E.J. Olson, J.E. Lupton, and K.L. Von Damm, Volatiles in the 9°N hydrothermal system: A comparison of 1991 and 1992 data, Eos Trans. AGU, (43), 73, Fall Meet. Suppl., 524, 1992.
78. + concentrations at an unsedimented mid-ocean ridge hydrothermal system, Nature, 364, 45-47, 1993.
79. Lilley, M.D., R.A. Feely, and J.H. Trefry, Chemical and biological transformations in hydrothermal plumes, in Seafloor Hydrothermal Systems: Physical, Chemical, Biological, and Geological Interactions, Geophys. Monogr. Ser., vol. 70, edited by S.E. Humphris et al., pp. 369-391, AGU, Washington D.C., 1995.
80. Lister, C.R.B., The basic physics of water penetration into hot rock, in Hydrothermal Processes at Seafloor Spreading Centers, edited by P.A. Rona et al., pp. 141-176, Plenum, New York, 1983.
81. Lupton, J.E., Terrestrial inert gases: Isotope tracer studies and clues to primordial components in the mantle, Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci., 11, 371-414, 1983.
82. 3He/heat ratios in submarine hydrothermal systems: Evidence from two plumes over the Juan de Fuca Ridge, Nature, 337, 161-164, 1989.
83. Lyon, G.L., and J.R. Hulston, Carbon and hydrogen isotopic compositions of New Zealand geothermal gases, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 48, 1161-1171, 1984.
84. Mathez, E.A., Influence of degassing on oxidation states of basaltic magmas, Nature, 310, 371-375, 1984.
85. Mathez, E.A., Carbonaceous matter in mantle xenoliths: Composition and relevance to the isotopes, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 51, 2339-2347, 1987.
86. Mathez, E.A., Vapor associated with mafic magma and controls on its composition, in Ore Deposition Associated With Magmas, Rev. Econ. Geol., vol. 4, edited by J.A. Whitney and A. J. Naldrett, pp. 21-31, Soc. of Econ. Geol., Littleton, Colo., 1989a.
87. Mathez, E.A., Interactions involving fluids in the Stillwater and Bushveld complexes: observations from the rocks, In Ore Deposition Associated with Magma, Rev. Econ Geol., vol. 4, edited by J.A. Whitney and A. J. Naldrett,. pp. 167-179, Soc. of Econ. Geol., Littleton, Colo., 1989b.
88. Mathez, E.A., and J.R. Delaney, The nature and distribution of primary carbon in submarine basalts and peridotite nodules, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett, 50, 217-232, 1981.
89. Mathez, E.A., V.J. Dietrich, J.R. Holloway, and A.E. Boudreau, Carbon distribution in the Stillwater Complex and evolution of vapor during crystallization of Stillwater and Bushveld magmas, J. Petrol., 30, 153-173, 1989.
90. Mattey, D.P., Carbon dioxide solubility and carbon isotope fractionation in basaltic melt, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 55, 3467-3473, 1991.
91. 2 and dissolved carbon species in basalt glass, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 53, 2377-2386, 1989.
92. 2 vapor, silicate and carbonate melts: an experimental study to 30 Kbar, Contrib. Mineral Petrol, 104, 492-505, 1990.
93. Mattey, D.P., R.H. Carr, I.P Wright, and C.T. Pillinger, Carbon isotopes in submarine basalt, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 70, 196-206, 1984.
94. Merlivat, L., F. Pineau, and M. Javoy, Hydrothermal vent waters at 13°N on the East Pacific Rise: Isotopic composition and gas concentration, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett.., 84, 100-108, 1987.
95. Meyer, P.S., and K. Sapp, Crystal size distribution, mineral chemistry, and crystallization history of ODP Site 735B gabbros, Eos Trans. AGU, 75 (44), Fall Meet. Suppl., 627, 1994.
96. Mottl, M.J., and J.A. Haggerty, Upwelling of Cl-poor, S and C-rich waters through a serpentinite seamount, Mariana Forearc, ODP Leg 125, Eos Trans. AGU, (70), Fall Meet. Suppl., 1382, 1989.
97. Muehlenbachs, K., and R.N. Clayton, Oxygen isotope composition of the oceanic crust and its bearing on seawater, J. Geophys. Res., 81, 4365-4369, 1976.
98. Nabelek P.I., T.C. Labotka, J.R. O'Neil, and J.J. Papika, Contrasting fluid/rock interaction between the Notch Peak granitic intrusion and argillites and limestones in western Utah: Evidence from stable isotopes and phase assemblages, Contrib. Mineral. Petrol., 86, 25-34, 1984.
99. Pasteris, J.D., and B. J. Wanamaker, Laser Raman microprobe analysis of experimentally re-equilibrated fluid inclusions in olivine: Some implications for mantle fluids, Am. Mineral., 73, 1074-1088, 1987.
100. Pasteris, J.D., J.J. Freeman, and C. I-Ming, Fluid deposited graphitic inclusions in quartz: comparison between KTB (German Continental Deep-Drilling) core samples and artificially re-equilibrated natural inclusions, Geo. Soc. Am. Abstr. Programs, 27, 262, 1995.
101. Pawley, A.R., J.R. Holloway, and P.F. McMillan, The effect of oxygen fugacity on the solubility of carbon-oxygen fluids in basaltic melt, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 110, 213-225, 1992.
102. 2 in fluid inclusions, Contrib. Mineral. Petrol.., 112, 329-340, 1992.
103. Peter, J.M., and W.C. Shanks III, Sulfur, carbon, and oxygen isotope variations in submarine hydrothermal deposits of Guaymas Basin, Gulf of California, USA, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 56, 2025-2040, 1992.
104. Pineau, F., and M. Javoy, Carbon isotopes and concentrations in mid-oceanic ridge basalts, Earth Planet Sci. Lett., 62, 239-257, 1983.
105. Pineau, F., and M. Javoy, Strong degassing at ridge crests: The behavior of dissolved carbon and water in basalt glasses at 14°N, Mid-Atlantic Ridge, Earth Planet Sci. Lett., 123, 179-198, 1994.
106. Pineau, F., and E.A. Mathez, Carbon isotopes in xenoliths from the Hualalai Volcano, Hawaii, and the generation of isotopic variability, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 54, 217-227 1990.
107. 12C ratios of rocks and inclusions in popping rocks of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, Earth Planet Sci. Lett., 29, 413-421, 1976.
108. Richet, P., Y. Bottinga, and M. Javoy, A review of hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur and chlorine isotopes fractionation among gaseous molecules, Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci., 5, 65-110, 1977.
109. Rona, P.A., H. Bougault, J.L. Charlou, P. Appriou, T.A. Nelsen, T.H. Trfry, G.L. Eberhart, A. Barone, and H.D. Needham, Hydrothermal circulation, serpentinization and degassing at a rift-valley fracture zone intersection: Mid-Atlantic Ridge near 15°N, 45°W, Geology, 20, 783-786, 1992.
110. Sakai, H., T. Gamo, E.-S. Kim, M. Tsutsumi, T. Tanaka, J. Ishibashi, H. Wakita, M. Yamano, and T. Oomori, Venting of carbon dioxide-rich fluid and hydrate formation in the Mid-Okinawa Trough backarc basin, Science, 248, 1093-1096, 1990.
111. Sansone, F.J., X. Wen, M.E. Holmes, J.A. Resing, T.M. Rust, and E.A. McLaughlin, Dissolved gases in Loihi hydrothermal plumes following the 1996 seismic event, Eos Trans AGU, 77 (46), Fall Meet. Suppl., F398, 1996.
112. Sato, M., and M. Valenza, Oxygen fugacities of the layered series of the Skaergaard intrusion. East Greenland, Am. J. Sci., 280-A, 134-158, 1980.
113. Schoell, M., The hydrogen and carbon isotopic composition of methane from natural gases of various origins, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 44, 649-661, 1988.
114. Shanks, W.C., III, J.K. Bohlke, and R.R. Seal II, Stable isotopes in mid-ocean ridge hydrothermal systems: Interactions between fluids, minerals, and organisms, in Seafloor Hydrothermal Systems: Physical, Chemical, Biological, and Geological Interactions, Geophys. Monogr. Ser., vol. 70, edited by S.E. Humphris et al, pp. 194-221, AGU, Washington, D.C., 1995.
115. Shock, E.L., Geochemical constraints on the origin of organic compounds in hydrothermal systems, Origins Life Evol. Biosphere, 20, 331-367, 1990.
116. Shock, E.L., Chemical environments of submarine hydrothermal systems, Origins Life Evol. Biosphere, 22, 67-107, 1992.
117. Simoneit, B.R., Aqueous high-temperature and high pressure organic geochemistry of hydrothermal vent systems, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta., 57, 3231-3243, 1993.
118. Stakes, D.S., Oxygen and hydrogen isotope compositions of oceanic plutonic rocks: High-temperature deformation and metamorphism of oceanic layer 3, in Stable Isotope Geochemistry: A Tribute to Samuel Epstein, edited by H.P. Taylor Jr., J.R. O'Neil, and I.R. Kaplan, pp. 77-90, Geochem. Soc. of Am., Boulder, Colo., 1991.
119. Stakes, D., C. Mével, M. Cannat, and T. Chaput, Metamorphic stratigraphy of Hole 735B, Proc. Ocean Drill. Program, Sci. Results, 118, 153-180, 1991.
120. Stolper, E., and J.R. Holloway, Experimental determination of the solubility of carbon dioxide in molten basalt at low pressure, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 87, 397-408, 1988.
121. Sugisaki, R., and K. Mimura, Mantle hydrocarbons: Abiotic or biotic?, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 58, 2527-2542, 1994.
122. Summit, M., and J.A. Baross, Thermophilic subseafloor microorganisms from the 1996 North Gorda Ridge eruption, Deep Sea Res., Part II, 45, 2751-2766, 1999.
123. Swart, P.K., C.T. Pillinger, H.J. Milledge, and M. Seal, Carbon isotopic variation within individual diamonds, Nature, 303, 793-795, 1983.
124. Taylor, B.E., Magmatic volatiles: isotopic variation of C, H, and S, inStable Isotopes in High Temperature Geological Processes , Rev. Mineral, vol. 16, edited by J.W. Valley, H.P. Taylor Jr., and J.R. O'Neil, pp. 185-226, Mineral. Soc. of Am., Washington, D.C., 1987.
125. Tingle, T.N., and M.F. Hochella Jr., Formation of reduced carbonaceous matter in basalts and xenoliths: Reaction of C-O-H gases on olivine and crack surfaces, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 57, 3245-3249, 1993.
126. Tingle T.N., M.F. Hochella, C.H. Becker, and R. Malhotra, Organic compounds on crack surfaces in olivine from San Carlos, Arizona, and Hualalai Volcano, Hawaii, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 54, 477-485, 1990.
127. Tingle T.N., E.A. Mathez, and M.F. Hochella Jr., Carbonaceous matter in peridotites and basalts studied by XPS, SALI, and LEED, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 55, 1345-1352, 1991.
128. Vanko, D.A., and D.S. Stakes, Fluids in oceanic layer 3: Evidence from veined rocks, Hole 735B, Southwest Indian Ridge, Proc. Ocean Drill. Program Sci. Results, 118, 181-215, 1991.
129. Von Damm, K.L., Seafloor hydrothermal activity: black smoker chemistry and chimneys, Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci., 18, 173-204, 1990.
130. Welhan, J.A., Origins of methane in hydrothermal systems, Chem. Geol, 71, 183-198, 1988.
131. Welhan, J.A., and H. Craig, Methane and hydrogen in East Pacific Rise hydrothermal fluids, Geophys. Res., Lett., 6, 829-831, 1979.
132. Welhan, J.A., and H. Craig, Methane, hydrogen, and helium in hydrothermal fluids of 21°N on the East Pacific Rise, in Hydrothermal Processes at Seafloor Spreading Centers, edited by P.A. Rona et al., pp. 391-409, Plenum, New York, 1983.
133. Welhan, J.A., and J.E. Lupton, Light hydrocarbon gases in Guaymas Basin hydrothermal fluids: Thermogenic versus abiogenic origin, AAPG Bull., 71, 215-223, 1987.
134. Wood, B.J., L.T., Bryndzia, and K.E. Johnson, Mantle oxidation state and its relationship to tectonic environment and fluid speciation, Science, 248, 337-345, 1990.
135. 2-reduced magnetite, J. Mater. Sci., 28, 1220-1226, 1993.
136. Zhang, Y., and A. Zindler, Distribution and evolution of carbon and nitrogen in Earth, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 117, 331-345, 1993.