Street drug abuse leading to critical illness

Intensive Care Medicine

Volumn 30, Issue 8, 2004, Pages 1526-1536

  Mokhlesi, Babak ^a   Garimella, Prasad S ^a   Joffe, Aaron ^b   Velho, Valerie ^a  

^a Jr Hospital of Cook County   (United States)

^b RUSH UNIVERSITY MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

Author keywords

Amphetamines; Club drugs; Cocaine; Critical illness; Gamma hydroxybutyrate; Opioids; Phencyclidine; Street drugs; Toxicology

Indexed keywords

3,4 METHYLENEDIOXYMETHAMPHETAMINE; 4 HYDROXYBUTYRIC ACID; ALCOHOL; AMPHETAMINE; BARBITURIC ACID DERIVATIVE; BENZODIAZEPINE; CANNABINOID; COCAINE; DEXTROMETHORPHAN; DEXTROPROPOXYPHENE; METHADONE; OPIATE; PENTAZOCINE; PHENCYCLIDINE; PSEUDOEPHEDRINE; STREET DRUG;

APNEA; BRADYCARDIA; COMA; CONFUSION; CRITICAL ILLNESS; DIAPHORESIS; DRUG ABUSE; DRUG USE; FEVER; HALLUCINATION; HUMAN; HYPERREFLEXIA; HYPERTENSION; HYPERTHERMIA; HYPOTENSION; HYPOTHERMIA; INTENSIVE CARE UNIT; INTOXICATION; MIOSIS; MYDRIASIS; PANIC; PHYSICIAN; PRESCRIPTION; PSYCHOSIS; RESTLESSNESS; REVIEW; SLURRED SPEECH; STUPOR; TACHYCARDIA; TREMOR;

EID: 4143145192     PISSN: 03424642     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s00134-004-2229-1     Document Type: Review

References (133)

1. Anonymous (2001) Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) Drug Abuse Warning Network (DAWN): major drugs of abuse in ED visits, 2001 Update. Available online at: http:// www.samhsa.gov/OAS/2k2/ DAWN/ majordrugs2k1.pdf
2. Anonymous (2001) Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) Drug Abuse Warning Network (DAWN): club drugs, 2001 Update. Available online at: http://www.samhsa.gov/oas/2k2/ DAWN/clubdrugs2k1. pdf
3. Litovitz TL, Klein-Schwartz W, White S, Cobaugh DJ, Youniss J, Omslaer JC, Drab A, Benson BE (2001) 2000 Annual report of the American Association of Poison Control Centers Toxic Exposure Surveillance System. Am J Emerg Med 19:337-395
4. Single E, Rehm J, Robson L, Truong MV (2000) The relative risks and etiologic fractions of different causes of death and disease attributable to alcohol, tobacco and illicit drug use in Canada. CMAJ 162:1669-1675
5. Henderson A, Wright M, Pond SM (1993) Experience with 732 acute overdose patients admitted to an intensive care unit over six years. Med J Aust 158:28-30
6. Laine C, Hauck WW, Gourevitch MN, Rothman J, Cohen A, Turner BJ (2001) Regular outpatient medical and drug abuse care and subsequent hospitalization of persons who use illicit drugs. JAMA 285:2355-2362
7. Baldwin WA, Rosenfeld BA, Breslow MJ, Buchman TG, Deutschman CS, Moore RD (1993) Substance abuse-related admissions to adult intensive care. Chest 103:21-25
8. Krenzelok EP, Leikin JB (1996) Approach to a poisoned patient. Disease-a-Month 42:509-608
9. Mokhlesi B, Leiken JB, Murray P, Corbridge TC (2003) Adult toxicology in critical care: part I: general approach to the intoxicated patient. Chest 123:577-592
10. Brett AS (1988) Implications of discordance between clinical impression and toxicology analysis in drug overdose. Arch Intern Med 148:437-441
11. Osterloh JD (1990) Utility and reliability of emergency toxicologic testing. Emerg Med Clin North Am 8:693-723
12. Richards JR, Bretz SW, Johnson EB, Turnipseed SD, Brofeldt BT, Derlet RW (1999) Methamphetamine abuse and emergency department utilization. West J Med 170:198-202
13. Kalant H (2001) The pharmacology and toxicology of "ecstasy" (MDMA) and related drugs. CMAJ 165:917-928
14. Albertson TE, Walby WF, Derlet RW (1995) Slimulant-induced pulmonary toxicity. Chest 108:1140-1149
15. Byard RW, Gilbert J, James R, Lokan RJ (1998) Amphelamine derivative fatalities in South Australia-is "Ecstasy" the culprit? Am J Forensic Med Pathol 19:261-265
16. Andreu V, Mas A, Bruguera M, Salmeron JM, Moreno V, Nogue S, Rodes J (1998) Ecstasy: a common cause of severe acute hepatotoxicity. J Hepatol 29:394-397
17. Jones AL, Simpson KJ (1999) Mechanisms and management of hepatotxicity in ecstasy (MDMA) and amphelamine intoxications. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 12:129-133
18. Henry JA, Jeffreys KJ, Dawling S (1992) Toxicity and deaths from 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine ("ecslasy"). Lancet 340:384-387
19. Milroy CM, Clark JC, Forrest AR (1996) Pathology of deaths associated with "ecstasy" and "eve" misuse. J Clin Pathol 49:149-153
20. Hong R, Matsuyama E, Nur K (1991) Cardiomyopathy associated with the smoking of crystal methamphetamine. JAMA 265:1152-1154
21. Holmes SB, Banerjee AK, Alexander WD (1999) Hyponatraemia and seizures after ecstasy use. Postgrad Med J 75:32-33
22. Maxwell DL, Polkey MI, Henry JA (1993) Hyponatraemia and catatonic stupor after taking "ecstasy". BMJ 307:1399
23. Holden R, Jackson MA (1996) Near-fatal hyponatraemic coma due to vasopressin over-secretion after "ecstasy" (3,4-MDMA). Lancet 347:1052
24. Dar KJ, McBrien ME (1996) MDMA induced hyperthermia: report of a fatality and review of current therapy. Intensive Care Med 22:995-996
25. Walubo A, Seger D (1999) Fatal multi-organ failure after suicidal overdose with MDMA, 'ecstasy': case report and review of the literature. Hum Exp Toxicol 18:119-125
26. Lan KC, Lin YF, Yu FC, Lin CS, Chu P (1998) Clinical manifestations and prognostic features of acute methamphetamine intoxication. J Formos Med Assoc 97:528-533
27. Richards JR, Johnson EB, Stark RW, Derlet RW (1999) Methamphetamine abuse and rhabdomyolysis in the ED: a 5-year study. Am J Emerg Med 17:681-685
28. Gillman PK (1997) Ecstasy, serotonin syndrome and the treatment of hyperpyrexia. Med J Aust 167:109-111
29. Albertson TE, Derlet RW, Van Hoozen BE (1999) Methamphelamine and the expanding complications of amphetamines. West J Med 170:214-219
30. Richards JR, Derlet RW, Duncan DR (1997) Methamphetamine toxicity: treatment with a benzodiazepine versus a butyrophenone. Eur J Emerg Med 4:130-135
31. Jones AL, Volans G (1999) Management of self poisoning. BMJ 319:1414-1417
32. Denborough MA, Hopkinson KC (1997) Dantrolene and "ecstasy". Med J Aust 166:165-166
33. Watson JD, Ferguson C, Hinds CJ, Skinner R, Coakley JH (1993) Exerlional heat stroke induced by amphetamine analogues. Does dantrolene have a place? Anaesthesia 48:1057-1060
34. Vale JA (1997) American Academy of Clinical Toxicology, European Association of Poison Centres and Clinical Toxicologists. Position statement gastric lavage. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 35:711-719
35. Pollack CV Jr, Biggers DW, Carlton FB Jr, Achord JL, Cranston PE, Eggen JT, Griswold JA (1992) Two crack cocaine body stuffers. Ann Emerg Med 21:1370-1380
36. Jeffcoat AR, Perez-Reyes M, Hill JM, Sadler BM, Cook CE (1989) Cocaine disposition in humans after intravenous injection, nasal insufflation (snorting), or smoking. Drug Metab Dispos 17:153-159
37. McCance-Katz EF, Price LH, McDougle CJ, Kosten TR, Black JE, Jatlow PI (1993) Concurrent cocaine-ethanol ingestion in humans: pharmacology, physiology, behavior, and the role of cocaethylene. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 111:39-46
38. Lange RA, Hillis LD (2001) Medical progress: cardiovascular complications of cocaine use. N Engl J Med 345:351-358
39. Johanson CE, Fischman MW (1989) The pharmacology of cocaine related to its abuse. Pharmacol Rev 41:3-52
40. Gold MS, Washton AM, Dackis CA (1985) Cocaine abuse: neurochemistry, phenomenology, and treatment. NIDA Res Monogr 61:130-150
41. Gay GR (1982) Clinical management of acute and chronic cocaine poisoning. Ann Emerg Med 11:562-572
42. Daras M, Tuchman AJ, Koppel BS, Samkoff LM, Weitzner I, Marc J (1994) Neurovascular complications of cocaine. Acta Neurol Scand 90:124-129
43. Levine SR, Brust JC, Futrell N, Ho KL, Blake D, Millikan CH, Brass LM, Fayad P, Schultz LR, Selwa JF (1990) Cerebrovascular complications of the use of the "crack" form of alkaloidal cocaine. N Engl J Med 323:699-704
44. Kaufman MJ, Levin JM, Ross MH, Lange N, Rose SL, Kukes TJ, Mendelson JH, Lukas SE, Cohen BM, Renshaw PF (1998) Cocaine-induced cerebral vasoconstriction detected in humans with magnetic resonance angiography. JAMA 279:376-380
45. Mangiardi JR, Daras M, Geller ME, Weitzner I, Tuchman AJ (1988) Cocaine-related intracranial hemorrhage. Report of nine cases and review. Acta Neurol Scand 77:177-180
46. McEvoy AW, Kitchen ND, Thomas DG (2000) Intracerebral haemorrhage and drug abuse in young adults. Br J Neurosurg 14:449-454
47. Daras M (1996) Neurologic complications of cocaine. NIDA Res Monogr 163:43-65
48. Harden CL, Daras M, Tuchman AJ (1992) Cocaine causing convulsions in a large municipal hospital population. J Epilepsy 5:175-177
49. Pascual-Leone A, Dhuna A, Altafullah I, Anderson DC (1990) Cocaine-induced seizures. Neurology 40:404-407
50. Alldredge BK, Lowenstein DH, Simon RP (1989) Seizures associated with recreational drug abuse. Neurology 39:1037-1039
51. Hollander JE, Hoffman RS, Genius P, Fairweather P, DiSano MJ, Schumb DA, Feldman JA, Fish SS, Dyer S, Wax P (1994) Prospective multicenter evaluation of cocaine-associated chest pain. Cocaine Associated Chest Pain (COCHPA) Study Group. Acad Emerg Med 1:330-339
52. Weber JE, Shofer FS, Larkin GL, Kalaria AS, Hollander JE (2003) Validation of a brief observation period for patients with cocaine-associated chest pain. N Engl J Med 348:510-517
53. Averbach M, Casey KK, Frank E (1996) Near-fatal status asthmaticus induced by nasal insufflation of cocaine. South Med J 89:340-341
54. Forrester JM, Steele AW, Waldron JA, Parsons PE (1990) Crack lung: an acute pulmonary syndrome with a spectrum of clinical and histopathologic findings. Am Rev Respir Dis 142:462-467
55. Merigian KS, Roberts JR (1987) Cocaine intoxication: hyperpyrexia, rhabdomyolysis and acute renal failure. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 25:135-148
56. Daras M, Kakkouras L, Tuchman AJ, Koppel BS (1995) Rhabdomyolysis and hyperthermia after cocaine abuse: a variant of the neuroleptic malignant syndrome? Acta Neurol Scand 92:161-165
57. Roth D, Alarcon FJ, Fernandez JA, Preston RA, Bourgoignie JJ (1988) Acute rhabdomyolysis associated with cocaine intoxication. N Engl J Med 319:673-677
58. Gourgoutis G, Das G (1994) Gastrointestinal manifestations of cocaine addiction. Int J Clin Pharmacol Ther 32:136-141
59. Niazi M, Kondru A, Levy J, Bloom AA (1997) Spectrum of ischemic colitis in cocaine users. Dig Dis Sci 42:1537-1541
60. Linder JD, Monkemuller KE, Raijman I, Johnson L, Lazenby AJ, Wilcox CM (2000) Cocaine-associated ischemic colitis. South Med J 93:909-913
61. Sudhakar CB, Al-Hakeem M, MacArthur JD, Sumpio BE (1997) Mesenteric ischemia secondary to cocaine abuse: case reports and literature review. Am J Gastroenterol 92:1053-1054
62. Hoffman RS, Smilkstein MJ, Goldfrank LR (1990) Whole bowel irrigation and the cocaine body-packer: a new approach to a common problem. Am J Emerg Med 8:523-527
63. Makosiej FJ, Hoffman RS, Rowland MA, Goldfrank LR (1993) An in vitro evaluation of cocaine hydrochloride adsorption by activated charcoal and desorption upon addition of polyethylene glycol electrolyte lavage solution. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 31:381-395
64. Glass JM, Scott HJ (1995) "Surgical mules": the smuggling of drugs in the gastrointestinal tract. J R Soc Med 88:450-453
65. Olmedo R, Nelson L, Chu J, Hoffman RS (2001) Is surgical decontamination definitive treatment of "body-packers"? Am J Emerg Med 19:593-596
66. Aldrighetti L, Paganelli M, Giacomelli M, Villa G, Ferla G (1996) Conservative management of cocaine-packet ingestion: experience in Milan, the main Italian smuggling center of South American cocaine. Panminerva Med 38:111-116
67. Hollander JE (1995) The management of cocaine-associated myocardial ischemia. N Engl J Med 333:1267-1272
68. Anonymous (2000) Guidelines 2000 for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care. Part 8: advanced challenges in resuscitation: section 2: toxicology in ECC. The American Heart Association in collaboration with the International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation. Circulation 102:1223-228
69. Sharma AK, Hamwi SM, Garg N, Castagna MT, Suddath W, Ellahham S, Lindsay J (2002) Percutaneous interventions in patients with cocaine-associated myocardial infarction: a case series and review. Catheter Cardiovasc Interv 56:346-352
70. Sand IC, Brody SL, Wrenn KD, Slovis CM (1991) Experience with esmolol for the treatment of cocaine-associated cardiovascular complications. Am J Emerg Med 9:161-163
71. Hollander JE, Carter WA, Hoffman RS (1992) Use of phentolamine for cocaine-induced myocardial ischemia. N Engl J Med 327:361
72. Sofuoglu M, Brown S, Babb DA, Pentel PR, Hatsukami DK (2000) Effects of labetalol treatment on the physiological and subjective response to smoked cocaine. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 65:255-259
73. Boehrer JD, Moliterno DJ, Willard JE, Hillis LD, Lange RA (1993) Influence of labetalol on cocaine-induced coronary vasoconstriction in humans. Am J Med 94:608-610
74. Holt SG, Moore KP (2001) Pathogenesis and treatment of renal dysfunction in rhabdomyolysis. Intensive Care Med 27:803-811
75. Cregler LL, Mark H (1986) Medical complications of cocaine abuse. N Engl J Med 315:1495-1500
76. Hon DC, Salloum LJ, Hardy HW, Barone JE (1990) Crack-induced enteric ischemia. N J Med 87:1001-1002
77. Anonymous (1999) Adverse events associated with ingestion of gamma-butyrolactone: Minnesota, New Mexico, and Texas, 1998-1999. MMWR 48:137-140
78. Anonymous (2000) Placement of gamma-butyrolactone in List I of the Controlled Substances Act (21 U.S.C. 802(34)). Drug Enforcement Administration, Justice. Final rule. Fed Regist 65:1645-1647
79. Tunnicliff G (1997) Sites of action of gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB)-a neuroactive drug with abuse potential. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 35:581-590
80. Van Cauter E, Plat L, Scharf MB, Leproult R, Cespedes S, L'Hermite-Baleriaux M, Copinschi G (1997) Simultaneous stimulation of slow-wave sleep and growth hormone secretion by gamma-hydroxybutyrate in normal young Men. J Clin Invest 100:745-753
81. Lammers GJ, Arends J, Declerck AC, Ferrari MD, Schouwink G, Troost J (1993) Gammahydroxybutyrate and narcolepsy: a double-blind placebo-controlled study. Sleep 16:216-220
82. Scharf MB, Lai AA, Branigan B, Stover R, Berkowitz DB (1998) Pharmacokinetics of gammahydroxybutyrate (GHB) in narcoleptic patients. Sleep 21:507-514
83. Anonymous (2002) A randomized, double blind, placebo-controlled multicenter trial comparing the effects of three doses of orally administered sodium oxybate with placebo for the treatment of narcolepsy. Sleep 25:42-49
84. Chin RL, Sporer KA, Cullison B, Dyer JE, Wu TD (1998) Clinical course of gamma-hydroxybutyrate overdose. Ann Emerg Med 31:716-722
85. Miro O, Nogue S, Espinosa G, To-Figueras J, Sanchez M (2002) Trends in illicit drug emergencies: the emerging role of gamma-hydroxybutyrate. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 40:129-135
86. Miotto K, Darakjian J, Basch J, Murray S, Zogg J, Rawson R (2001) Gamma-hydroxybutyric acid: patterns of use, effects and withdrawal. Am J Addict 10:232-241
87. Dyer JE, Roth B, Hyma BA (2001) Gamma-hydroxybutyrate withdrawal syndrome. Ann Emerg Med 37:147-153
88. Davis LG (1999) Fatalities attributed to GHB and related compounds. South Med J 92:1037
89. Li J, Stokes SA, Woeckener A (1998) A tale of novel intoxication: a review of the effects of gamma-hydroxybutyric acid with recommendations for management. Ann Emerg Med 31:729-736
90. Zvosec DL, Smith SW, McCutcheon JR, Spillane J, Hall BJ, Peacock EA (2001) Adverse events, including death, associated with the use of 1,4-butanediol. N Engl J Med 344:87-94
91. Virtue RW, Lund LO, Beckwitt HJ, Vogel JH (1966) Cardiovascular reactions to gamma hydroxybutyrate in man. Can Anaesth Soc J 13:119-123
92. Li J, Stokes SA, Woeckener A (1998) A tale of novel intoxication: seven cases of gamma-hydroxybutyric acid overdose. Ann Emerg Med 31:723-728
93. Yates SW, Viera AJ (2000) Physostigmine in the treatment of gamma-hydroxybutyric acid overdose. Mayo Clin Proc 75:401-402
94. Mullins ME, Dribben W (2000) Physostigmine treatment of gamma-hydroxybutyric acid overdose: appropriate or inappropriate use of a reversal agent? Mayo Clin Proc 75:872-873
95. Traub SJ, Nelson LS, Hoffman RS (2002) Physostigmine as a treatment for gamma-hydroxybutyrate toxicity: a review. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 40:781-787
96. ElSohly MA, Salamone SJ (1999) Prevalence of drugs used in cases of alleged sexual assault. J Anal Toxicol 23:141-146
97. LeBeau MA, Montgomery MA, Miller ML, Burmeister SG (2000) Analysis of biofluids for gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB) and gamma-butyrolactone (GBL) by headspace GC-FID and GC-MS. J Anal Toxicol 24:421-428
98. Kalasinsky KS, Dixon MM, Schmunk GA, Kish SJ (2001) Blood, brain, and hair GHB concentrations following fatal ingestion. J Forensic Sci 46:728-730
99. Oldendorf WH, Hyman S, Braun L, Oldendorf SZ (1972) Blood-brain barrier: penetration of morphine, codeine, heroin, and methadone after carotid injection. Science 178:984-986
100. Sporer KA (1999) Acute heroin overdose. Ann Intern Med 130:584-590
101. Warner-Smith M, Darke S, Lynskey M, Hall W (2001) Heroin overdose: causes and consequences. Addiction 96:1113-1125
102. Darke S, Zador D (1996) Fatal heroin 'overdose': a review. Addiction 91:1765-1772
103. Zador D, Sunjic S, Darke S (1996) Heroin-related deaths in New South Wales, 1992: toxicological findings and circumstances. Med J Aust 164:204-207
104. Ruttenber AJ, Kalter HD, Santinga P (1990) The role of ethanol abuse in the etiology of heroin-related death. J Forensic Sci 35:891-900
105. O'Driscoll PT, McGough J, Hagan H, Thiede H, Critchlow C, Alexander ER (2001) Predictors of accidental fatal drug overdose among a cohort of injection drug users. Am J Public Health 91:984-987
106. Sternbach G (1983) William Osler: narcotic-induced pulmonary edema. J Emerg Med 1:165-167
107. Katz S, Aberman A, Frand UI, Stein IM, Fulop M (1972) Heroin pulmonary edema. Evidence for increased pulmonary capillary permeability. Am Rev Respir Dis 106:472-474
108. Sporer KA, Dorn E (2001) Heroin-related noncardiogenic pulmonary edema: a case series. Chest 120:1628-1632
109. Cygan J, Trunsky M, Corbridge T (2000) Inhaled heroin-induced status asthmaticus: five cases and a review of the literature. Chest 117:272-275
110. Krantz AJ, Hershow RC, Prachand N, Hayden DM, Franklin C, Hryhorczuk DO (2003) Heroin insufflation as a trigger for patients with life-threatening asthma. Chest 123:510-517
111. Buck ML, Blumer JL (1991) Opioids and other analgesics. Adverse effects in the intensive care unit. Crit Care Clin 7:615-637
112. Ng B, Alvear M (1983) Dextropropoxyphene addiction-a drug of primary abuse. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse 19:153-158
113. Marinella MA (1997) Meperidine-induced generalized seizures with normal renal function. South Med J 90:556-558
114. Hershey LA (1983) Meperidine and central neurotoxicity. Ann Intern Med 98:548-549
115. Hoffman RS, Goldfrank LR (1995) The poisoned patient with altered consciousness: controversies in the use of a "coma cocktail". JAMA 274:562-569
116. Hoffman JR, Schriger DL, Luo JS (1991) The empiric use of naloxone in patients with altered mental status: a reappraisal. Ann Emerg Med 20:246-252
117. Goldfrank LR, Hoffman RS (1995) The poisoned patient with altered consciousness. JAMA 274:562-569
118. Schwartz JG, Garriott JC, Somerset JS, Igler EJ, Rodriguez R, Orr MD (1994) Measurements of fentanyl and sufentanil in blood and urine after surgical application. Implication in detection of abuse. Am J Forensic Med Pathol 15:236-241
119. Levine B, Smialek JE (1988) Considerations in the interpretation of urine analyses in suspected opiate intoxications. J Forensic Sci 43:388-389
120. Tandberg D, Abercrombie D (1982) Treatment of heroin overdose with endotracheal naloxone. Ann Emerg Med 11:443-445
121. Goldfrank LR (1984) The several uses of naloxone. Emerg Med 16:105-116
122. Kim S, Wagner HN Jr, Villemagne VL, Kao PF, Donnals RF, Ravert HT, Joh T, Dixon RB, Civelek AC (1997) Longer occupancy of opioid receptors by nalmefene compared to naloxone as measured in vivo by a dual-detector system. J Nucl Med 38:1726-1731
123. Kaplan JL, Marx JA, Calabro JJ, Gin-Shaw SL, Spiller JD, Spivey WL, Gaddis GM, Zhao N, Harchelroad FP Jr (1999) Double-blind, randomized study of nalmefene and naloxone in emergency department patients with suspected narcotic overdose. Ann Emerg Med 34:42-50
124. Schwartz JA, Koenigsberg MD (1987) Naloxone-induced pulmonary edema. Ann Emerg Med 16:1294-1296
125. Mariani PJ (1989) Seizures associated with low-dose naloxone. Am J Emerg Med 7:127-129
126. Osterwalder JJ (1996) Naloxone-for intoxications with intravenous heroin and heroin mixtures-harmless or hazardous? A prospective clinical study. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 34:409-416
127. McCarron MM, Schulze BW, Thompson GA, Conder MC, Goetz WA (1981) Acute phencyclidine intoxication: incidence of clinical findings in 1,000 cases. Ann Emerg Med 10:237-242
128. Akmal M, Valdin JR, McCarron MM, Massry SG (1981) Rhabdomyolysis with and without acute renal failure in patients with phencyclidine intoxication. Am J Nephrol 1:91-96
129. Eastman JW, Cohen SN (1975) Hypertensive crisis and death associated with phencyclidine poisoning. JAMA 231:1270-1271
130. Bessen HA (1982) Intracranial hemorrhage associated with phencyclidine abuse. JAMA 248:585-586
131. Boyko OB, Burger PC, Heinz ER (1987) Pathological and radiological correlation of subarachnoid hemorrhage in phencyclidine abuse. Case report. J Neurosurg 67:446-448
132. Price WA, Giannini AJ (1985) Management of PCP intoxication. Am Fam Physician 32:115-118
133. Giannini AJ, Loiselle RH, DiMarzio LR, Giannini MC (1987) Augmentation of haloperidol by ascorbic acid in phencyclidine intoxication. Am J Psychiatry 144:1207-1209