Evolutionary origin of bipolar disorder (eobd)

Psycoloquy

Volumn 12, Issue , 2001, Pages 1-32

  Sherman, Julia A ^a  

^a NONE   (United States)

Author keywords

Biological clock; Bipolar disorder; Cold adaptation; Depression; Environment; Evolution; Kretschmer; Mania; Physique; Seasonal

Indexed keywords

EID: 4143136479     PISSN: 10550143     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (165)

1. Aiello, L. C. & Wheeler, P. (1995) The expensive-tissue hypothesis. Current Anthropology 36: 199-221.
2. American Psychiatric Association (1987) Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. (DSM-III-R) 3d ed. rev., American Psychiatric Association Press.
3. American Psychiatric Association (1994) Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. (DSM-IV) 4th ed., American Psychiatric Association Press.
4. Anastasi, A. (1937) Differential psychology, Macmillan.
5. Anastasi, A. (1958) Differential psychology, Macmillan.
6. Anastasi, A. & Foley, J. P. (1949) Differential psychology, Macmillan.
7. Andreasen, N. C. (1987) Creativity and mental illness: prevalence rates in writers and their first-degree relatives. American Journal of Psychiatry 144: 1288-92.
8. Antelman, S. M., Levine, J., Gershon, S., Caggiula, A. R. & Edwards, D. J. (2000) Cyclic and oscillatory behaviors in biological systems: a relevant model for bipolar disorder? In: Bipolar disorders, ed. J.C. Soares & S. Gershon, Marcel Dekker.
9. Anonymous (1968) Ernst Kretschmer (1888-1964) body and mind. Journal American Medical Association 205: 929-30.
10. Aoun, S. L. & Gregory, R. J. (1998) Mental disorders of Eskimos seen at a community mental health center in western Alaska. Psychiatric Services 49: 1485-7.
11. Arnold, L. M., McElroy, S. L. & Keck, P. E., Jr. (2000) The role of gender in mixed mania. Comprehensive Psychiatry 41:83-7.
12. Barondes, S. H. (1998) Mood genes, Freeman.
13. Bauer, M. S. (1993) Summertime bright-light treatment of bipolar major depressive episodes. Biological Psychiatry 33: 663-5.
14. Bauer, M. S. & Dunner, D. L. (1996) Validity of seasonal pattern as a modifier for recurrent mood disorders in DSM-IV. In: DSM-IV sourcebook, Vol 2, ed. T. A. Widiger, A. J. Frances, H. D. Pincus, R. Ross, M. B. First & W. Davis, American Psychiatric Press.
15. Beauchemin, K. M. & Hays, P. (1997) Phototherapy is a useful adjunct in the treatment of depressed in-patients. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 95: 424-27.
16. Bebbington, P. & Ramana, R. (1995) The epidemiology of bipolar affective disorder. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 30: 279-92.
17. Beers, C. W. (1953) A mind that found itself, Doubleday.
18. Berger, D. & Berger, L. (1991) We heard the angels of madness; a family guide to coping with manic depression, Quill, William Morrow.
19. Berger, R. J. & Phillips, N. H. (1995) Energy conservation and sleep. Behavioral and Brain Research 69: 65-73.
20. Biederman, J., Klein, R. G., Pine, D. S. & Klein, D. F. (1998) Resolved: mania is mistaken for ADHD in prepubertal children. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry 37: 1091-6.
21. Boaz, N. T. (1997) Eco homo, Basic Books.
22. Bowden, C. L. (2000) Classification of bipolar and related disorders: implications for this field. In: Bipolar disorders, ed. J. C. Soares & S. Gershon, Marcel Dekker.
23. Bower, B. (1998) Bright lights dim winter depression. Science News 154: 260.
24. Bunney, W. E., Jr., Murphy, D., Goodwin, F. K. & Borge, G. F. (1972a) The "switch process" in manic-depressive illness: I: A systematic study of sequential behavior change. Archives of General Psychiatry 27: 295-302.
25. Bunney, W. E., Jr., Goodwin, F. K., Murphy, D.L., House, K. M. & Gordon, E. K. (1972b) The "switch process" in manic-depressive illness: II: Relationship to catecholamines, REM sleep, and drugs. Archives of General Psychiatry 27: 304-9.
26. Bunney, W. E., Jr., Goodwin, F. K. & Murphy, D. L. (1972c) The "switch process" in manic-depressive illness: III: Theoretical implications. Archives of General Psychiatry 27: 312-17.
27. Burchard, M. L. (1936) Physique and psychosis. Comparative Psychological Monographs 13: 1-73.
28. Campbell, S. C. & Murphy, P. J. (1998) Extraocular circadian phototransduction in humans. Science 279: 396-9.
29. Carney, P. A., Fitzgerald, C. T. & Monaghan, C. E. I. (1988) Influence of climate on the prevalence of mania. British Journal of Psychiatry 152: 820-3.
30. Cavalli-Sforza, L. L., Menozzi, P. & Piazza, A. (1994) The history and geography of genes, Princeton University Press.
31. Clarke, M., Moran, P., Keogh, F., Morris, M., Kinsella, A., Walsh, D., Larkin, C. & O'Callaghan, E. O. (1998) Seasonal influences on admissions in schizophrenia and affective disorder in Ireland. Schizophrenia Research 34: 143-9.
32. Cohen, J. I. (1940) Physical types and their relations to psychotic types. Journal of Mental Science 86: 602-23.
33. Collinder, B. (1949) The Lapps, Princeton University Press.
34. Coryell, W., Endicott, J. & Keller, M. (1990) Outcome of patients with chronic affective disorder: a five-year follow up. American Journal of Psychiatry 147:1627-33.
35. Cossins, A. R. & Barnes, B. (1996) Southern discomfort. Nature 382: 582-3.
36. Daly, I., Webb, M. & Kalister, M. (1995) First admission incidence study of mania, 1975-1981. British Journal of Psychiatry 167: 463-8.
37. Deltito, J. A., Moline, M., Pollak, C., Martin, L. Y. & Maremmani, I. (1991) Effects of phototherapy on non-seasonal unipolar and bipolar depressive spectrum disorders. Journal of Affective Disorders 23: 231-7.
38. D'Mello, D. A., McNeil, J. A. & Msibi, B. (1995) Seasons and bipolar disorder. Annals of Clinical Psychiatry 7: 11-8.
39. Duke, P. & Hochman, G. (1992) A brilliant madness: living with manic-depressive illness, Bantam.
40. Eagles, J. M. (1994) The relationship between mood and daily hours of sunlight in rapid cycling bipolar illness. Society of Biological Psychiatry 36: 422-4.
41. Eastwood, M. R., Whitton, J. L., Kramer, P. M., Peter, A. M. (1985) Infradian rhythms: a comparison of affective disorders and normal persons. Archives of General Psychiatry 42: 295-9.
42. Erickson, J. (1996) Glacial geology: how the ice shapes the land, Facts on File.
43. Eysenck, H. J. (1947) Dimensions of personality, Kegan Paul.
44. Eysenck, H. J. (1953) The structure of human personality, Methun.
45. Faedda, G. L., Tondo, L., Teicher, M. H., Baldessarini, R. J., Gelbard, H. A. & Floris, G. F. (1993) Seasonal mood disorders: patterns of seasonal recurrence in mania and depression. Archives of General Psychiatry 50: 17-23.
46. Feldman-Naim, S., Turner, E. H., & Leibenluft, E. (1997) Diurnal variation in the direction of mood switches in patients with rapid-cycling bipolar disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 58: 79-84.
47. Frangos, E., Athanassenas, G., Tsitourides, S., Psilolignos, P., Robos, A., Katsanou, N. & Bulgaris, Ch. (1980) Seasonality of the episodes of recurrent affective psychoses. Journal of Affective Disorders 2: 239-47.
48. Garvey, C. B. (1933) Comparative body build of manic-depressives and schizophrenic patients. Psychological Bulletin 30: 567-8.
49. Geller, B. & Luby, J. (1997) Child and adolescent bipolar disorder: review of the past 10 years. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 36: 1-9.
50. Geller, B., Todd, R. D., Luby, J. & Botteron, K. N. (1996) Treatment-resistant depression in children and adolescents. The Psychiatric Clinics of North America 19: 253-67.
51. Ghaemi, S. N., Boiman, E. E. & Goodwin F. K. (1999) Kindling and second messengers: an approach to neurobiology of recurrence in bipolar disorder. Society of Biological Psychiatry 45: 137-44.
52. Goldberg, J. F., Harrow, M. & Grossman, L. S. (1995) Course and outcome in affective bipolar disorder: a longitudinal follow-up study. American Journal of Psychiatry 152: 379-84.
53. Goodwin, F. K. & Jamison, K. R. (1990) Manic-depressive illness, Oxford University Press.
54. Hafner, H. (1990) Ernst Kretschmer 1888-1964. Psychological Medicine 20: 487-92.
55. Hardin, T. A., Wehr, T. A., Brewerton, T., Kasper, S., Berrettini, W., Rabkin, J. & Rosenthal, N. E. (1991) Evaluation of seasonality in six clinical populations and two normal populations. Journal of Psychiatric Research 25: 75-87.
56. Hauser, P., Matochik, J., Altschuler, L. L., Denicoff, K. D., Conrad, A., Li, X. & Post, R. M. (2000) MRI-based measurements of temporal lobe and ventricular structures in patients with bipolar I and bipolar II disorders. Journal of Affective Disorders. 60: 25-32.
57. Healy, D. & Waterhouse, J. M. (1995) The circadian system and the therapeutics of the affective disorders. Pharmacological Therapy 65: 241-63.
58. Hendrick, V., Altshuler, L. L., Gitlin, M. J. Delrahim, S. & Hammen, C. (2000) Gender and bipolar illness. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 61: 393-6.
59. Himmelhoch, J. M. (2000) Biology of the switch process in bipolar disorders. In: Bipolar disorders, ed. J.C. Soares & S. Gershon, Marcel Dekker.
60. Holliday, T. W. (1997) Postcranial evidence of cold adaptation in European Neandertals. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 104: 245-58.
61. Hunt, N., Sayer, H. & Silverstone, T. (1992) Season and manic relapse. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavia 85: 123-6.
62. Jablensky, A., Hugler, H., Von Cranach, M. & Kalinov, K. (1993) Kraepelin revisited: a reassessment and statistical analysis of dementia praecox and manicdepressive insanity in 1908. Psychological Medicine 23: 843-58.
63. Jackson, S. W. (1986) Melancholia and depression: from Hippocratic times to modern times, Yale University Press.
64. Jain, S., Kaliaperumal, V. G., Chatterji, S., Rao, S. & Murthy, R. S. (1992) Journal of Affective Disorders 26: 247-50.
65. Jamison, K. R. (1995a) Touched by fire, Johns Hopkins Press.
66. Jamison, K. R. (1995b) An unquiet mind: a memoir of moods and madness, Knopf.
67. Jamison, K. R. (1999) Night falls fast, Knopf.
68. Jamison, K. R. (2000) Suicide and bipolar disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 61 Suppl. 9: 47-51.
69. Jones, I., Hornsby, H. & Hay, D. (1995) Seasonality of mania: a Tasmanian study. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 29: 449-53.
70. Jurmain, R., Nelson, H., Kilgore, L. & Trevathan, W. (1997) Introduction to physical anthropology, 7th ed., Wadsworth.
71. Kamo, K., Tomitaka, S., Nakadaira, S., Kamo, T. & Sakamoto, K. (1993) Season and mania. The Japanese Journal of Psychiatry and Neurology 49: 473-4.
72. Kappeler , P. M. & Dill, A. (2000) The lemurs of Kirindy. Natural History 109: 58-65.
73. Kerr-Corra, F., Souza, L. B. & Calil, H. M. (1998) Affective disorders, hospital admissions, and seasonal variation of mania in a subtropical area, southern hemisphere. Psychopathology 3: 265-9.
74. Kilduff, T. S., Krilowicz, B., Milsom, W. K., Trachsel, L. & Wang, L. C. H. (1993) Sleep and mammalian hibernation: homologous adaptations and homologous processes? Sleep 16: 372-86.
75. Kirov, G. & Murray, R. M. (1999) Ethnic differences in the presentation of bipolar affective disorder. European Psychiatry: the Journal of the Association of European Psychiatrists 14: 199-204.
76. Klein, D. C., Moore, R. Y. & Reppert, S. M. (1991) Suprachiasmatic nucleus: the mind's clock, Oxford University Press.
77. Kretschmer, E. (1970) Physique and character, 2d ed., Couper Square Publishers.
78. Kripke, D. F., Mullaney, D. J., Klauber, M. R., Risch, S. C. & Gillin, J. C. (1992) Controlled treatment of bright light for nonseasonal major depressive disorders. Biological Psychiatry 3: 119-34.
79. Lacoste, V. & Wirz-Justice, A. (1989) Seasonal variation in normal subjects: an update of variables current in depression research. In: Seasonal affective disorders and phototherapy, ed. N. E. Rosenthal & M. C. Blehar, Guilford.
80. Laitman, J. T., Reidenberg, J. S., Marquez, S. & Gannon, P. J. (1996) What the nose knows-new understandings of Neanderthal upper respiratory tract specializations. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 93: 10543-5.
81. Leibenluft, E. (1996) Women with bipolar illness--clinical and research issues (review). American Journal of Psychiatry 153: 163-73.
82. Lewy, A. J. & Sack, R. L. (1986) Light therapy and psychiatry. Proceedings of the Society of Experimental Biological Medicine 183: 11-18.
83. Lewy, A. J., Nurnberger, J. I., Wehr, T. A., Pack, D., Becker, L. E., Powell, R. L. & Newsome, D. A. (l985) Supersensitivity to light: possible trait marker for manicdepressive illness. American Journal of Psychiatry 142: 725-7.
84. Lewy, A. J., Wehr, T. A., Goodwin, F., Newsome, D. A. & Rosenthal, N. E. (1981) Manic-depressive patients may be supersensitive to light. Letter. Lancet 1: 383-4.
85. Loomis, W. F. (1967) Skin-pigment regulation of vitamin-D biosynthesis in man. Science 157: 501-6.
86. Ludwig, A. M. (1995) The price of greatness: resolving the creativity and madness controversy, Guilford.
87. McGuffin, P., Riley, B. & Plomin, R. (2001) Toward behavioral genomics. Science 291: 1232, 1249.
88. Malkoff-Schwartz, S., Frank, E., Anderson, B., Sherrill, J. T., Siegel, L., Patterson, D. & Kupfer, D. J. (1998) Stressful life events and social rhythm disruption in the onset of manic and depressive bipolar episodes. A preliminary investigation. Archives of General Psychiatry 55: 701-7.
89. Modai, I., Kikinzon, L. & Valevski, A. (1994) Environmental factors and admission rates in patients with major psychiatric disorders. Chronobiology International 11: 196-99.
90. Morell, V. (1996) Manic-depression findings spark polarized debate. Science 272: 31-2.
91. Mulder, R. T., Cosgriff, J. P., Smith, A. M. & Joyce, P. R. (1990) Seasonality of mania in New Zealand. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 24:187-90.
92. Myers, D. H. & Davies, P. (1978) The seasonal incidence of mania and its relationship to climatic variables. Psychological Medicine 8: 433-40.
93. Mynett-Johnson, L. A. & McKeon P. (1996) The molecular genetics of affective disorders: an overview. Irish Journal of Psychological Medicine 13: 155-61.
94. Nesse, R. M. (2000) Is depression an adaptation? Archives of General Psychiatry 57: 14-20.
95. Nofzinger, E. A. (2000) Sleep and biological rhythms in bipolar disorder. In: Bipolar disorders: basic mechanisms and therapeutic implications, ed. J. C. Soares & S. Gershon, Marcel Dekker.
96. Nurnberger, J. I. & Gershon E. S. (1992) Genetics. In: Handbook of affective disorders, 2d ed., ed. E.S. Paykel, Guilford.
97. Nurnberger, J. I., Adkins, S., Lahiri, D. K., Mayeda, A., Hu, K., Lewy, A. et al. (2000) Melatonin suppression by light in euthymic bipolar and unipolar patients. Archives of General Psychiatry 57: 572-9.
98. Nurnberger, J. I., Berrettini, W., Tamarkin, L., Hamovit, J., Norton, J. & Gershon, E. S. (1988) Supersensitivity to melatonin suppression by light in young people at high risk for affective disorder: a preliminary report. Neuropsychopharmacology 1: 217-23.
99. Nurnberger, J. I., De Paulo, J. R., Gershon, E. S., Reich, T., Blehar, M. C. et al. (1997) Genomic survey of bipolar illness in the NIMH genetics initiative pedigrees: a preliminary report. American Journal of Medical Genetics 74: 227-37.
100. Pande, A. C. (1985) Light-induced hypomania. American Journal of Psychiatry 142: 1146.
101. Parker, G., Roy, K., Wilhelm, K., Mitchell, P. & Hadzi-Pavolovic, D. (2000) The nature of bipolar depression: implications for the definition of melancholia. Journal of Affective Disorders 59: 217-24.
102. Partonen, T. & Lonnqvist, J. (1999) Seasonal variation in bipolar disorder. British Journal of Psychiatry 169: 641-6.
103. Paterson, D. G. (1930) Physique and intellect, Appleton-Century-Crofts.
104. Pearlson, G. D. (1999) Structural and functional brain changes in bipolar disorder: a selective review. Schizophrenia Research 39: 133-140.
105. Peck, D. F. (1990) Climatic variables and admissions for mania: a reanalysis. Journal of Affective Disorders 2: 249-50.
106. Pivicki, D. & Christie, R. G. (1968) Body build characteristics in psychotics. Comprehensive Psychiatry 9: 574-80.
107. Plomin, R., De Fries, J., McClearn, G. & McGuffin, P. (2001) Behavioral genetics, 4th ed., Freeman.
108. Post, R. M. & Weiss, S. R. B. (1996) A speculative model of affective illness cyclicity based on patterns of drug tolerance observed in amygdala-kindled seizures. Molecular Neurobiology 13: 33-60.
109. Rasanen, P., Tiihonen, J. & Hakko, H. (1998) The incidence and onset-age of hospitalized bipolar affective disorder in Finland. Journal of Affective Disorders 48: 63-8.
110. Rees, L. (1973) Constitutional factors and abnormal behavior. In: Handbook of abnormal psychology, ed. H. J. Eysenck, Pitman Medical.
111. Regier, D. A., Narrow, W. E., Rae, D. S., Manderscheid, R. W., Locke, B. Z. & Goodwin, F. K. (1993) The de Facto US Mental and Addictive Disorders Service System. Epidemiologic Catchment Area prospective 1-year prevalence rates of disorders and services. Archives of General Psychiatry 50: 85-94.
112. Rosenthal, N. E. & Blehar, M. C., eds. (1989) Seasonal affective disorder and phototherapy, Guilford Press.
113. Rosenthal, N. E. & Wehr, T. A. (1987) Seasonal affective disorders. Psychiatric Annuals 17: 670-4.
114. Rosenthal, N. E., Sack, D. A., Gillin, J. C., Lewy, A. J., Goodwin, F. K., Davenport, Y., Mueller, P. S., Newsome, D. A. & Wehr, T. A. (1984) Seasonal affective disorder: a description of the syndrome and preliminary findings with light therapy. Archives of General Psychiatry 41: 72-80.
115. Rusak, B. (1981) Vertebrate behavioral rhythms. In: Handbook of behavioral neurobiology, ed. J. Aschoff, Plenum Press.
116. Sampath, H. M. (1974) Prevalence of psychiatric disorders in a Southern Baffin Island Eskimo settlement. Canadian Psychiatric Association Journal 19: 363-7.
117. Sayer, H. K., Marshall, S. & Mellsop, G. W. (1991) Mania and seasonality in the southern hemisphere. Journal of Affective Disorders 23: 151-6.
118. Schwartz, J. H. & Tattersall, I. (1996) Significance of some previously unrecognized apomorphies in the nasal region of Homo neanderthalensis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science. 93: 10852-54.
119. Seggie, J., Canny, C., Mai, F., McCrank, E. & Waring, E. (1989a) Antidepressant medication reverses increased sensitivity to light in depression: preliminary report. Progress in Neuropsychopharmacologic Biological Psychiatry 13: 537-41.
120. Seggie, J., Carney, P. A., Parker, J., Grof, E. & Grof, P. (1989b) Effect of chronic lithium on sensitivity to light in male and female bipolar patients. Progress in Neuropsychopharmacologic Biological Psychiatry 13: 543-9.
121. Segman, R. H. & Lerer, B. (2000) Genetic and causal factors of bipolar disorder. In: Bipolar disorders: basic mechanisms and therapeutic implications, ed. J. C. Soares & S. Gershon, Marcel Dekker.
122. Seltzer, A. & Langford, A. (1984) Forensic psychiatric assessments in the Northwest Territories. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 29: 665-8.
123. Sheldon, W. H., Stevens, S. S. & Tucker, W. B. (1940) The varieties of human physique: an introduction to constitutional psychology, Harper.
124. Siegel, S. (1956) Nonparametric statistics, McGraw-Hill.
125. Silverstone, T., Romans, S., Hunt, N. & McPherson, H. (1995) Is there a seasonal pattern of relapse in bipolar affective disorders? A dual northern and southern hemisphere cohort study. British Journal of Psychiatry 167: 58-60.
126. Singer, K., Chang, P. T. & Hsu, G. L. K. (1972) Physique, personality and mental illness in the Southern Chinese. British Journal of Psychiatry 121: 315-19.
127. Singer, K., Lieh-Mak, F. & Ng, M. L. (1976) Physique, personality and mental illness in Southern Chinese women. British Journal of Psychiatry 129: 243-7.
128. Soares, J. C. & Gershon, S., eds. (2000) Bipolar disorders, Marcel Dekker.
129. Stokkan, K., Yamazaki, S., Hajime, T., Sakaki, Y. & Menaker, M. (2001) Entrainment of the circadian clock in the liver by feeding. Science 291: 490-3.
130. Stringer, C. B. (1995) The evolution and distribution of later Pleistocene human populations. In: Paleoclimate and evolution, ed. E. S. Vrba, G. H. Denton, T. C. Partridge & L. H. Burcke, Yale University Press.
131. Stringer, C. B & McKie, R. (1996) African exodus: the origins of modern humanity, Jonathan Cape.
132. Suhail, K. & Cochrane, R. (1998) Seasonal variations in hospital admissions for affective disorders by gender and ethnicity. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 33: 211-17.
133. Symonds, R. L. & Williams, P. (1976) Seasonal variation in the incidence of mania. British Journal of Psychiatry 129: 45-8.
134. Szabo, C. P. (1994) Mood disorders and season of presentation: a preliminary study of an in-patient sample at Baragwanath Hospital. South African Medical Journal 84: 35-7.
135. Szabo, C. P. & Terre Blanche, M. J. (1995) Seasonal variation in mood disorder presentation: further evidence of this phenomenon in a South African sample. Journal of Affective Disorders 33: 209-14.
136. Takahashi, J. S., Turek, F. & Moore, R.Y., eds. (In Press) Handbook of behavioral neurobiology: circadian clocks, Plenum.
137. Takei, N., O'Callaghan, E., Sham, P., Glover, G., Tamura, A. & Murray, R. (1992) Seasonality of admissions in the psychoses: effect of diagnosis, sex, and age at onset. British Journal of Psychiatry 161: 506-11.
138. Thompson, C. & Isaacs, G. (1988) Seasonal affective disorder - a British sample. Symptomatology in relation to mode of referral and diagnostic subtype. Journal of Affective Disorders 14: 1-11.
139. Veijola, J., Rasanen, P., Isohanni, M. & Tiihonen, J. (1996) Low incidence of mania in northern Finland. British Journal of Psychiatry 168: 520-1.
140. Von Zerssen, D. (1969) Comparative studies in the psychomorphological constitution of schizophrenic and other groups. In: Schizophrenia: current concepts and research, ed. D.V.S. Sankar, PJD Publishers.
141. Von Zerssen, D. (1976) Physique and personality. In: Human behaviour genetics, ed. A. R. Kaplan, Charles C Thomas.
142. Vrba, E. S., Denton, G. H., Partridge, T. C. & Burcke, L. H., eds. (1995) Paleoclimate and evolution, Yale University Press.
143. Walter, S. D. (1977) Seasonality of mania: a reappraisal. British Journal of Psychiatry 131: 345-50.
144. Weaver, R. (1979) The circadian system of man, Springer-Verlag.
145. Wehr, T. A. (1989) Seasonal affective disorders: a historical overview. In: Seasonal affective disorders and phototherapy, ed. N. E. Rosenthal & M. C. Blehar, Guilford.
146. Wehr, T. A. (1990) Reply to-Healy D. and Waterhouse J. M.: The circadian system and affective disorders: clocks or rhythms? Chronobiology International 7: 11-14.
147. Wehr, T. A. & Goodwin, F. K. (1983) Biological rhythms in manic-depressive illness. In: Arcadian rhythms in psychiatry, ed. T. A. Wehr & F. K. Goodwin, Boxwood Press.
148. Wehr, T. A. & Goodwin, F. K. (1987) Can antidepressants cause mania and worsen the course of affective illness? American Journal of Psychiatry 144: 1403-11.
149. Wehr, T. A. & Rosenthal, N. E. (1989) Seasonality and affective illness. American Journal of Psychiatry 146: 829-39.
150. Wehr, T. A., Jacobsen, F. M., Sack, D. A., Arendt, J., Tamarkin, L. & Rosenthal, N. E. (1986) Phototherapy of seasonal affective disorder: Time of day and suppression of melatonin are not critical for antidepressant effects. Archives of General Psychiatry 43: 870-5.
151. Wehr, T. A., Moul, D. E., Barbato, G., Giesen, H. A., Seidel, J. A., Barker, C. & Bender, C. (1993) Conservation of photoperiod-responsive mechanisms in human beings. American Journal of Physiology 34: 846-57.
152. Wehr, T. A., Sack, D. A. & Rosenthal, N. E. (1987) Sleep reduction as a final common pathway in the genesis of mania. American Journal of Psychiatry 144: 201-4.
153. Weissman, M. M., Bland, R. C., Canino, G. J., Carlo, F., Greenwald, S., Hai-Gwo, H. et al. (1996) Cross-national epidemiology of major depression and bipolar disorder. Journal American Medical Association 276: 293-9.
154. Westphal, K. (1931) Korperbau und Charakter der Epileptiker. Nervenartz 4: 96-9.
155. Whitney, D. K., Sharma, V. & Kueneman, K. (1999) Seasonality of manic depressive illness in Canada. Journal of Affective Disorders 55: 99-105.
156. Whybrow, P. C. (1997) A mood apart, Harper.
157. Widlocher, D. (1983) Retardation: a basic emotional response? In: The affective disorders, ed. J. M. Davis & J. W. Maas, American Psychiatric Press.
158. Wilson, D. (1998) Evolutionary epidemiology and manic depression. British Journal of Medical Psychology 71: 375-95.
159. Winokur, G. (1976) Duration of illness prior to hospitalization (onset) in the affective disorders. Neuropsychobiology 2: 87-93.
160. Winokur, G., Coryell, W., Keller, M., Endicott, J. & Leon, A. (1995) A family study of manic-depressive (bipolar I) disease: Is it a distinct illness separable from primary unipolar depression? Archives of General Psychiatry 52: 367-73.
161. Wirz-Justice, A. (1995) Biological rhythms in mood disorders. In: Psychopharmacology: the fourth generation of progress, ed. D. J. Kupfer, Raven Press.
162. Wirz-Justice, A., Bucheli, C., Graw, P., Kielholz, P., Fisch, H. U. & Woggon, B. (1986) Light treatment of seasonal affective disorder in Switzerland. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavia 74: 193-204.
163. Wolff, E. A., Putnam, F. W. & Post, R. M. (1985) Motor activity and affective illness. Archives General Psychiatry 42: 288-94.
164. Wolpoff, M. H. (1999) Paleoanthropology, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill.
165. Yolken, R. H. & Torrey, E. F. (2000) Hypothesis of a viral etiology in bipolar disorder. In: Bipolar disorders, ed. J. C. Soares & S. Gershon, Marcel Dekker.