Youth in the military: Gendered experiences in the conscript service in the Israeli army

Armed Forces and Society

Volumn 30, Issue 3, 2004, Pages

  Dar, Yechezkel ^a   Kimhi, Shaul ^b  

^a Tel Hai Academic College ^*

^b TEL HAI COLLEGE   (Israel)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 4143126789     PISSN: 0095327X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0095327X0403000306     Document Type: Review

References (67)

1. For the centrality of the military service in Israeli society, see Eyal Ben-Ari and Edna Lomsky-Feder, eds., The Military and Militarism in Israeli Society (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1999).
2. For this perspective, see Glen H. Elder, "Perspectives on the Life Course," in Life Course Dynamics: Trajectories and Transitions, ed. Glen H. Elder (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1985), 23-49; and Glen H. Elder, "Military Times and Turning Points in Men's Lives," Developmental Psychology 22 (1986): 233-45. Amiya Lieblich adopted this perspective in Israel in her Transition to Adulthood During Military Service (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1989). Several studies apply this approach in examining particular aspects of the Israel military experience, e.g.: Helena Syna-Desivilya and Reuven Gal, Repeated War Experiences: The Case of Israeli Reservists (Zichron Ya'akov: The Israeli Institute for Military Studies, 1992 [in Hebrew]); Edna Lomsky-Feder, "The Meaning of War Through Veterans' Eyes: Phenomenological Analysis of Life Stories," International Sociology 10 (1995): 463-82; Liora Sion, Images of Manhood among Combat Soldiers: Military Service in the Israeli Infantry as a Rite of Passage from Youth to Adulthood (Jerusalem: Shaine Center, Hebrew University, 1997 [in Hebrew]); H. Yerushalmi, "A Psychoanalytic Perspective on Late Adolescence in Men in an Israeli Combat Unit," Psychoanalytic Psychology 14 (1997): 113-27; Maxine G. Wintre and Revital Ben-Knaz, '"It's Not Academic, You're in the Army Now': Adjustment to the Army as a Comparative Context for Adjustment to University," Journal of Adolescent Research 15 (2000): 145-72.
3. For this perspective, see Glen H. Elder, "Perspectives on the Life Course," in Life Course Dynamics: Trajectories and Transitions, ed. Glen H. Elder (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1985), 23-49; and Glen H. Elder, "Military Times and Turning Points in Men's Lives," Developmental Psychology 22 (1986): 233-45. Amiya Lieblich adopted this perspective in Israel in her Transition to Adulthood During Military Service (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1989). Several studies apply this approach in examining particular aspects of the Israel military experience, e.g.: Helena Syna-Desivilya and Reuven Gal, Repeated War Experiences: The Case of Israeli Reservists (Zichron Ya'akov: The Israeli Institute for Military Studies, 1992 [in Hebrew]); Edna Lomsky-Feder, "The Meaning of War Through Veterans' Eyes: Phenomenological Analysis of Life Stories," International Sociology 10 (1995): 463-82; Liora Sion, Images of Manhood among Combat Soldiers: Military Service in the Israeli Infantry as a Rite of Passage from Youth to Adulthood (Jerusalem: Shaine Center, Hebrew University, 1997 [in Hebrew]); H. Yerushalmi, "A Psychoanalytic Perspective on Late Adolescence in Men in an Israeli Combat Unit," Psychoanalytic Psychology 14 (1997): 113-27; Maxine G. Wintre and Revital Ben-Knaz, '"It's Not Academic, You're in the Army Now': Adjustment to the Army as a Comparative Context for Adjustment to University," Journal of Adolescent Research 15 (2000): 145-72.
4. For this perspective, see Glen H. Elder, "Perspectives on the Life Course," in Life Course Dynamics: Trajectories and Transitions, ed. Glen H. Elder (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1985), 23-49; and Glen H. Elder, "Military Times and Turning Points in Men's Lives," Developmental Psychology 22 (1986): 233-45. Amiya Lieblich adopted this perspective in Israel in her Transition to Adulthood During Military Service (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1989). Several studies apply this approach in examining particular aspects of the Israel military experience, e.g.: Helena Syna-Desivilya and Reuven Gal, Repeated War Experiences: The Case of Israeli Reservists (Zichron Ya'akov: The Israeli Institute for Military Studies, 1992 [in Hebrew]); Edna Lomsky-Feder, "The Meaning of War Through Veterans' Eyes: Phenomenological Analysis of Life Stories," International Sociology 10 (1995): 463-82; Liora Sion, Images of Manhood among Combat Soldiers: Military Service in the Israeli Infantry as a Rite of Passage from Youth to Adulthood (Jerusalem: Shaine Center, Hebrew University, 1997 [in Hebrew]); H. Yerushalmi, "A Psychoanalytic Perspective on Late Adolescence in Men in an Israeli Combat Unit," Psychoanalytic Psychology 14 (1997): 113-27; Maxine G. Wintre and Revital Ben-Knaz, '"It's Not Academic, You're in the Army Now': Adjustment to the Army as a Comparative Context for Adjustment to University," Journal of Adolescent Research 15 (2000): 145-72.
5. For this perspective, see Glen H. Elder, "Perspectives on the Life Course," in Life Course Dynamics: Trajectories and Transitions, ed. Glen H. Elder (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1985), 23-49; and Glen H. Elder, "Military Times and Turning Points in Men's Lives," Developmental Psychology 22 (1986): 233-45. Amiya Lieblich adopted this perspective in Israel in her Transition to Adulthood During Military Service (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1989). Several studies apply this approach in examining particular aspects of the Israel military experience, e.g.: Helena Syna-Desivilya and Reuven Gal, Repeated War Experiences: The Case of Israeli Reservists (Zichron Ya'akov: The Israeli Institute for Military Studies, 1992 [in Hebrew]); Edna Lomsky-Feder, "The Meaning of War Through Veterans' Eyes: Phenomenological Analysis of Life Stories," International Sociology 10 (1995): 463-82; Liora Sion, Images of Manhood among Combat Soldiers: Military Service in the Israeli Infantry as a Rite of Passage from Youth to Adulthood (Jerusalem: Shaine Center, Hebrew University, 1997 [in Hebrew]); H. Yerushalmi, "A Psychoanalytic Perspective on Late Adolescence in Men in an Israeli Combat Unit," Psychoanalytic Psychology 14 (1997): 113-27; Maxine G. Wintre and Revital Ben-Knaz, '"It's Not Academic, You're in the Army Now': Adjustment to the Army as a Comparative Context for Adjustment to University," Journal of Adolescent Research 15 (2000): 145-72.
6. For this perspective, see Glen H. Elder, "Perspectives on the Life Course," in Life Course Dynamics: Trajectories and Transitions, ed. Glen H. Elder (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1985), 23-49; and Glen H. Elder, "Military Times and Turning Points in Men's Lives," Developmental Psychology 22 (1986): 233-45. Amiya Lieblich adopted this perspective in Israel in her Transition to Adulthood During Military Service (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1989). Several studies apply this approach in examining particular aspects of the Israel military experience, e.g.: Helena Syna-Desivilya and Reuven Gal, Repeated War Experiences: The Case of Israeli Reservists (Zichron Ya'akov: The Israeli Institute for Military Studies, 1992 [in Hebrew]); Edna Lomsky-Feder, "The Meaning of War Through Veterans' Eyes: Phenomenological Analysis of Life Stories," International Sociology 10 (1995): 463-82; Liora Sion, Images of Manhood among Combat Soldiers: Military Service in the Israeli Infantry as a Rite of Passage from Youth to Adulthood (Jerusalem: Shaine Center, Hebrew University, 1997 [in Hebrew]); H. Yerushalmi, "A Psychoanalytic Perspective on Late Adolescence in Men in an Israeli Combat Unit," Psychoanalytic Psychology 14 (1997): 113-27; Maxine G. Wintre and Revital Ben-Knaz, '"It's Not Academic, You're in the Army Now': Adjustment to the Army as a Comparative Context for Adjustment to University," Journal of Adolescent Research 15 (2000): 145-72.
7. For this perspective, see Glen H. Elder, "Perspectives on the Life Course," in Life Course Dynamics: Trajectories and Transitions, ed. Glen H. Elder (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1985), 23-49; and Glen H. Elder, "Military Times and Turning Points in Men's Lives," Developmental Psychology 22 (1986): 233-45. Amiya Lieblich adopted this perspective in Israel in her Transition to Adulthood During Military Service (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1989). Several studies apply this approach in examining particular aspects of the Israel military experience, e.g.: Helena Syna-Desivilya and Reuven Gal, Repeated War Experiences: The Case of Israeli Reservists (Zichron Ya'akov: The Israeli Institute for Military Studies, 1992 [in Hebrew]); Edna Lomsky-Feder, "The Meaning of War Through Veterans' Eyes: Phenomenological Analysis of Life Stories," International Sociology 10 (1995): 463-82; Liora Sion, Images of Manhood among Combat Soldiers: Military Service in the Israeli Infantry as a Rite of Passage from Youth to Adulthood (Jerusalem: Shaine Center, Hebrew University, 1997 [in Hebrew]); H. Yerushalmi, "A Psychoanalytic Perspective on Late Adolescence in Men in an Israeli Combat Unit," Psychoanalytic Psychology 14 (1997): 113-27; Maxine G. Wintre and Revital Ben-Knaz, '"It's Not Academic, You're in the Army Now': Adjustment to the Army as a Comparative Context for Adjustment to University," Journal of Adolescent Research 15 (2000): 145-72.
8. For this perspective, see Glen H. Elder, "Perspectives on the Life Course," in Life Course Dynamics: Trajectories and Transitions, ed. Glen H. Elder (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1985), 23-49; and Glen H. Elder, "Military Times and Turning Points in Men's Lives," Developmental Psychology 22 (1986): 233-45. Amiya Lieblich adopted this perspective in Israel in her Transition to Adulthood During Military Service (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1989). Several studies apply this approach in examining particular aspects of the Israel military experience, e.g.: Helena Syna-Desivilya and Reuven Gal, Repeated War Experiences: The Case of Israeli Reservists (Zichron Ya'akov: The Israeli Institute for Military Studies, 1992 [in Hebrew]); Edna Lomsky-Feder, "The Meaning of War Through Veterans' Eyes: Phenomenological Analysis of Life Stories," International Sociology 10 (1995): 463-82; Liora Sion, Images of Manhood among Combat Soldiers: Military Service in the Israeli Infantry as a Rite of Passage from Youth to Adulthood (Jerusalem: Shaine Center, Hebrew University, 1997 [in Hebrew]); H. Yerushalmi, "A Psychoanalytic Perspective on Late Adolescence in Men in an Israeli Combat Unit," Psychoanalytic Psychology 14 (1997): 113-27; Maxine G. Wintre and Revital Ben-Knaz, '"It's Not Academic, You're in the Army Now': Adjustment to the Army as a Comparative Context for Adjustment to University," Journal of Adolescent Research 15 (2000): 145-72.
9. For this perspective, see Glen H. Elder, "Perspectives on the Life Course," in Life Course Dynamics: Trajectories and Transitions, ed. Glen H. Elder (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1985), 23-49; and Glen H. Elder, "Military Times and Turning Points in Men's Lives," Developmental Psychology 22 (1986): 233-45. Amiya Lieblich adopted this perspective in Israel in her Transition to Adulthood During Military Service (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1989). Several studies apply this approach in examining particular aspects of the Israel military experience, e.g.: Helena Syna-Desivilya and Reuven Gal, Repeated War Experiences: The Case of Israeli Reservists (Zichron Ya'akov: The Israeli Institute for Military Studies, 1992 [in Hebrew]); Edna Lomsky-Feder, "The Meaning of War Through Veterans' Eyes: Phenomenological Analysis of Life Stories," International Sociology 10 (1995): 463-82; Liora Sion, Images of Manhood among Combat Soldiers: Military Service in the Israeli Infantry as a Rite of Passage from Youth to Adulthood (Jerusalem: Shaine Center, Hebrew University, 1997 [in Hebrew]); H. Yerushalmi, "A Psychoanalytic Perspective on Late Adolescence in Men in an Israeli Combat Unit," Psychoanalytic Psychology 14 (1997): 113-27; Maxine G. Wintre and Revital Ben-Knaz, '"It's Not Academic, You're in the Army Now': Adjustment to the Army as a Comparative Context for Adjustment to University," Journal of Adolescent Research 15 (2000): 145-72.
10. Yechezkel Dar and Shaul Kimhi, "Military Service and Self-Perceived Maturation Among Israeli Youth," Journal of Youth and Adolescence 30 (2001): 427-48.
11. For attitudinal and behavioral manifestations of this situation in organizations, see, e.g., Henry A. Walker and Mary L. Fennell, "Gender Differences in Role Differentiation and Organizational Task Performance," Annual Review of Sociology 12 (1986): 255-75; B. R. Ragins and E. Sundstrom, "Gender and Power in Organization: A Longitudinal Perspective," Psychological Bulletin 105 (1989): 51-88; Linda L. Carli, "Gender, Interpersonal Power, and Social Influence," Journal of Social Issues 55 (1999): 81-99.
12. For attitudinal and behavioral manifestations of this situation in organizations, see, e.g., Henry A. Walker and Mary L. Fennell, "Gender Differences in Role Differentiation and Organizational Task Performance," Annual Review of Sociology 12 (1986): 255-75; B. R. Ragins and E. Sundstrom, "Gender and Power in Organization: A Longitudinal Perspective," Psychological Bulletin 105 (1989): 51-88; Linda L. Carli, "Gender, Interpersonal Power, and Social Influence," Journal of Social Issues 55 (1999): 81-99.
13. For attitudinal and behavioral manifestations of this situation in organizations, see, e.g., Henry A. Walker and Mary L. Fennell, "Gender Differences in Role Differentiation and Organizational Task Performance," Annual Review of Sociology 12 (1986): 255-75; B. R. Ragins and E. Sundstrom, "Gender and Power in Organization: A Longitudinal Perspective," Psychological Bulletin 105 (1989): 51-88; Linda L. Carli, "Gender, Interpersonal Power, and Social Influence," Journal of Social Issues 55 (1999): 81-99.
14. For the history of the women's integration in the IDF, see Reuven Gal, A Portrait of the Israeli Soldier (New York: Greenwood Press, 1986). Some statutory and social aspects of women's service in the IDF are discussed in Yaffa Felisler, "Women in the Army and in the Police Force," in Women in Israel: Information, Statistics and Interpretations (Jerusalem: Women's Lobby in Israel, 1996) 81-9 [in Hebrew]; and in Baruch Nevo and Yael Shor, "Women in the IDF," in Women in the IDF, ed. Uri Dromi (Jerusalem: Israel Democracy Institute, 2001), 9-31 [in Hebrew].
15. For the history of the women's integration in the IDF, see Reuven Gal, A Portrait of the Israeli Soldier (New York: Greenwood Press, 1986). Some statutory and social aspects of women's service in the IDF are discussed in Yaffa Felisler, "Women in the Army and in the Police Force," in Women in Israel: Information, Statistics and Interpretations (Jerusalem: Women's Lobby in Israel, 1996) 81-9 [in Hebrew]; and in Baruch Nevo and Yael Shor, "Women in the IDF," in Women in the IDF, ed. Uri Dromi (Jerusalem: Israel Democracy Institute, 2001), 9-31 [in Hebrew].
16. For the history of the women's integration in the IDF, see Reuven Gal, A Portrait of the Israeli Soldier (New York: Greenwood Press, 1986). Some statutory and social aspects of women's service in the IDF are discussed in Yaffa Felisler, "Women in the Army and in the Police Force," in Women in Israel: Information, Statistics and Interpretations (Jerusalem: Women's Lobby in Israel, 1996) 81-9 [in Hebrew]; and in Baruch Nevo and Yael Shor, "Women in the IDF," in Women in the IDF, ed. Uri Dromi (Jerusalem: Israel Democracy Institute, 2001), 9-31 [in Hebrew].
17. Nevo and Shor, "Women in the IDF," p. 12.
18. For the U.S., see Martha A. Mardsen, "The Continuing Debate: Women Soldiers in the U.S. Army," in Life in the Rank and File, ed. David. R. Segal and H. Wallace Sinaiko (New York: Pergamon-Brassey's, 1986), 58-78; David J. Armor, "Race and Gender in the U.S. Military," Armed Forces & Society 23 (1996): 7-27. For the UK, see Christopher Dandeker and Mady Wechsler Segal, "Gender Integration in Armed Forces: Recent Policy Development in the United Kingdom," Armed Forces & Society 23 (1996): 29-47.
19. For the U.S., see Martha A. Mardsen, "The Continuing Debate: Women Soldiers in the U.S. Army," in Life in the Rank and File, ed. David. R. Segal and H. Wallace Sinaiko (New York: Pergamon-Brassey's, 1986), 58-78; David J. Armor, "Race and Gender in the U.S. Military," Armed Forces & Society 23 (1996): 7-27. For the UK, see Christopher Dandeker and Mady Wechsler Segal, "Gender Integration in Armed Forces: Recent Policy Development in the United Kingdom," Armed Forces & Society 23 (1996): 29-47.
20. For the U.S., see Martha A. Mardsen, "The Continuing Debate: Women Soldiers in the U.S. Army," in Life in the Rank and File, ed. David. R. Segal and H. Wallace Sinaiko (New York: Pergamon-Brassey's, 1986), 58-78; David J. Armor, "Race and Gender in the U.S. Military," Armed Forces & Society 23 (1996): 7-27. For the UK, see Christopher Dandeker and Mady Wechsler Segal, "Gender Integration in Armed Forces: Recent Policy Development in the United Kingdom," Armed Forces & Society 23 (1996): 29-47.
21. Nevo and Shor, "Women in the IDF," p. 14. According to the State Comptroller's report, in 2002 only 1 percent of the women soldiers served in real combat roles (Ha'aretz, October 8, 2002). For a critical evaluation of the role opening up for women in the IDF, see Joyce Robbins and Uri Ben-Eliezer, "New Roles or 'New Times'? Gender Inequality and Militarism in Israel's Nation-in-Arms," Social Politics 7 (2000): 309-42.
22. Nevo and Shor, "Women in the IDF," p. 14. According to the State Comptroller's report, in 2002 only 1 percent of the women soldiers served in real combat roles (Ha'aretz, October 8, 2002). For a critical evaluation of the role opening up for women in the IDF, see Joyce Robbins and Uri Ben-Eliezer, "New Roles or 'New Times'? Gender Inequality and Militarism in Israel's Nation-in-Arms," Social Politics 7 (2000): 309-42.
23. Nevo and Shor, "Women in the IDF," p. 14. According to the State Comptroller's report, in 2002 only 1 percent of the women soldiers served in real combat roles (Ha'aretz, October 8, 2002). For a critical evaluation of the role opening up for women in the IDF, see Joyce Robbins and Uri Ben-Eliezer, "New Roles or 'New Times'? Gender Inequality and Militarism in Israel's Nation-in-Arms," Social Politics 7 (2000): 309-42.
24. Married women, but not men, are exempted from the draft. Women are also let off by declaring religiosity, while religious men have to prove actual Yeshiva attendance. Likewise, mental difficulties allow exemption for women more easily than for men. Only 15 percent of female recruits complete the-full statutory term of service, as compared to 80 percent of males. S.A. Cohen, "Towards a New Portrait of the (New) Israeli Soldier," Israel Affairs 3 (1997): 77-114.
25. For the gendered nature implications of the military service in Israel, see Anne. R. Bloom, "Women in the Defense Forces," in Calling the Equality Bluff, ed. Barbara Swirski and Marilyn P. Safir (New York: Pergamon, 1991), 128-38; Iris Jerby, The Double Price: Women Status and Military Service in Israel (Tel Aviv: Ramot, 1996 [in Hebrew]); Orna Sasson-Levy, Constructions of Gender Identities within the Israeli Army (Ph.D. thesis, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 2000 [in Hebrew]); Uta Klein, "The Gender Perspective of Civil-Military Relations in Israeli Society," Current Sociology 50 (2002): 669-86.
26. For the gendered nature implications of the military service in Israel, see Anne. R. Bloom, "Women in the Defense Forces," in Calling the Equality Bluff, ed. Barbara Swirski and Marilyn P. Safir (New York: Pergamon, 1991), 128-38; Iris Jerby, The Double Price: Women Status and Military Service in Israel (Tel Aviv: Ramot, 1996 [in Hebrew]); Orna Sasson-Levy, Constructions of Gender Identities within the Israeli Army (Ph.D. thesis, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 2000 [in Hebrew]); Uta Klein, "The Gender Perspective of Civil-Military Relations in Israeli Society," Current Sociology 50 (2002): 669-86.
27. For the gendered nature implications of the military service in Israel, see Anne. R. Bloom, "Women in the Defense Forces," in Calling the Equality Bluff, ed. Barbara Swirski and Marilyn P. Safir (New York: Pergamon, 1991), 128-38; Iris Jerby, The Double Price: Women Status and Military Service in Israel (Tel Aviv: Ramot, 1996 [in Hebrew]); Orna Sasson-Levy, Constructions of Gender Identities within the Israeli Army (Ph.D. thesis, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 2000 [in Hebrew]); Uta Klein, "The Gender Perspective of Civil-Military Relations in Israeli Society," Current Sociology 50 (2002): 669-86.
28. For the gendered nature implications of the military service in Israel, see Anne. R. Bloom, "Women in the Defense Forces," in Calling the Equality Bluff, ed. Barbara Swirski and Marilyn P. Safir (New York: Pergamon, 1991), 128-38; Iris Jerby, The Double Price: Women Status and Military Service in Israel (Tel Aviv: Ramot, 1996 [in Hebrew]); Orna Sasson-Levy, Constructions of Gender Identities within the Israeli Army (Ph.D. thesis, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 2000 [in Hebrew]); Uta Klein, "The Gender Perspective of Civil-Military Relations in Israeli Society," Current Sociology 50 (2002): 669-86.
29. Today, only 7 percent of the drafted women are officers. Women constitute 24 percent of the officers in the conscripted service and only 16 percent in the standing army (Nevo and Shor, "Women in the IDF," p. 14).
30. Edna Lomsky-Feder and Tamar Rapoport, "Juggling Models of Masculinity: Russian-Jewish Immigrants in the Israeli Army," Israeli Sociology 3 (2000): 31-51 [in Hebrew]; Sasson-Levy, Constructions of Gender Identities within the Israeli Army; Danny Kaplan, "The Military as a Second Bar Mitzvah: Combat Service as Initiation to Zionist Masculinity," in Imagined Masculinities: Male Identity in the Modern Middle East, eds. Mai Ghoussoub and Emma Sinclair-Webb (London: Saqi Books, 2000), 127-44.
31. Edna Lomsky-Feder and Tamar Rapoport, "Juggling Models of Masculinity: Russian-Jewish Immigrants in the Israeli Army," Israeli Sociology 3 (2000): 31-51 [in Hebrew]; Sasson-Levy, Constructions of Gender Identities within the Israeli Army; Danny Kaplan, "The Military as a Second Bar Mitzvah: Combat Service as Initiation to Zionist Masculinity," in Imagined Masculinities: Male Identity in the Modern Middle East, eds. Mai Ghoussoub and Emma Sinclair-Webb (London: Saqi Books, 2000), 127-44.
32. Edna Lomsky-Feder and Tamar Rapoport, "Juggling Models of Masculinity: Russian-Jewish Immigrants in the Israeli Army," Israeli Sociology 3 (2000): 31-51 [in Hebrew]; Sasson-Levy, Constructions of Gender Identities within the Israeli Army; Danny Kaplan, "The Military as a Second Bar Mitzvah: Combat Service as Initiation to Zionist Masculinity," in Imagined Masculinities: Male Identity in the Modern Middle East, eds. Mai Ghoussoub and Emma Sinclair-Webb (London: Saqi Books, 2000), 127-44.
33. David H.J. Morgan, "Theatre of War: Combat, the Military and Masculinities," in Theorizing Masculinities, ed. Harry Brod and Michael Kaufman (London: Sage, 1994), 165-82. This aspect of military life is symbolized in the initiation rites into combat units, seen as rites of passage into manhood. See Sion, Images of Manhood.
34. David H.J. Morgan, "Theatre of War: Combat, the Military and Masculinities," in Theorizing Masculinities, ed. Harry Brod and Michael Kaufman (London: Sage, 1994), 165-82. This aspect of military life is symbolized in the initiation rites into combat units, seen as rites of passage into manhood. See Sion, Images of Manhood.
35. See Nitza Berkovitch, "Motherhood as a National Mission: The Construction of Womanhood in the Legal Discourse in Israel," Women's Studies International Forum 20 (1997): 605-19; Sasson-Levy, Constructions of Gender Identities within the Israeli Army,
36. See Nitza Berkovitch, "Motherhood as a National Mission: The Construction of Womanhood in the Legal Discourse in Israel," Women's Studies International Forum 20 (1997): 605-19; Sasson-Levy, Constructions of Gender Identities within the Israeli Army,
37. See Regina F. Titunik, "The First Wave: Gender Integration and Military Culture," Armed Forces & Society 26 (2000): 229-57.
38. See Dafna N. Izraeli, "Gendering Military Service in the Israel Defense Forces," Israel Social Sciences Research 12 (1997): 129-66; Sasson-Levy, Construction of Gender Identities in the Israeli Army.
39. See Dafna N. Izraeli, "Gendering Military Service in the Israel Defense Forces," Israel Social Sciences Research 12 (1997): 129-66; Sasson-Levy, Construction of Gender Identities in the Israeli Army.
40. Erik H Erikson, "Ego Identity and the Psychosocial Moratorium," in New Perspectives for Research on Juvenile Delinquency, ed. H.L. Witmer and R. Kolinsky (Washington, DC: US Department of Health, 1955), 1-23; James E. Côté and Charles Levine, "A Formulation of Erikson's Theory of Ego Identity Formation," Developmental Review 7 (1987): 273-325. On the prolongation of youth into young adulthood, see Kenneth Keniston, "Youth as a Stage of Life," American Scholar 39 (1970): 631-54; Hugh Klein, "Adolescence, Youth, and Young Adulthood: Rethinking Current Conceptualizations of Life Stages," Youth & Society 21 (1990): 446-71; Yechezkel Dar, "Youth in the Kibbutz: The Prolonged Transition to Adulthood," Israel Social Science Research 8 (1993): 122-46; James E. Côté, Arrested Adulthood: The Changing Nature of Maturity and Identity (New York: New York University Press, 2000).
41. Erik H Erikson, "Ego Identity and the Psychosocial Moratorium," in New Perspectives for Research on Juvenile Delinquency, ed. H.L. Witmer and R. Kolinsky (Washington, DC: US Department of Health, 1955), 1-23; James E. Côté and Charles Levine, "A Formulation of Erikson's Theory of Ego Identity Formation," Developmental Review 7 (1987): 273-325. On the prolongation of youth into young adulthood, see Kenneth Keniston, "Youth as a Stage of Life," American Scholar 39 (1970): 631-54; Hugh Klein, "Adolescence, Youth, and Young Adulthood: Rethinking Current Conceptualizations of Life Stages," Youth & Society 21 (1990): 446-71; Yechezkel Dar, "Youth in the Kibbutz: The Prolonged Transition to Adulthood," Israel Social Science Research 8 (1993): 122-46; James E. Côté, Arrested Adulthood: The Changing Nature of Maturity and Identity (New York: New York University Press, 2000).
42. Erik H Erikson, "Ego Identity and the Psychosocial Moratorium," in New Perspectives for Research on Juvenile Delinquency, ed. H.L. Witmer and R. Kolinsky (Washington, DC: US Department of Health, 1955), 1-23; James E. Côté and Charles Levine, "A Formulation of Erikson's Theory of Ego Identity Formation," Developmental Review 7 (1987): 273-325. On the prolongation of youth into young adulthood, see Kenneth Keniston, "Youth as a Stage of Life," American Scholar 39 (1970): 631-54; Hugh Klein, "Adolescence, Youth, and Young Adulthood: Rethinking Current Conceptualizations of Life Stages," Youth & Society 21 (1990): 446-71; Yechezkel Dar, "Youth in the Kibbutz: The Prolonged Transition to Adulthood," Israel Social Science Research 8 (1993): 122-46; James E. Côté, Arrested Adulthood: The Changing Nature of Maturity and Identity (New York: New York University Press, 2000).
43. Erik H Erikson, "Ego Identity and the Psychosocial Moratorium," in New Perspectives for Research on Juvenile Delinquency, ed. H.L. Witmer and R. Kolinsky (Washington, DC: US Department of Health, 1955), 1-23; James E. Côté and Charles Levine, "A Formulation of Erikson's Theory of Ego Identity Formation," Developmental Review 7 (1987): 273-325. On the prolongation of youth into young adulthood, see Kenneth Keniston, "Youth as a Stage of Life," American Scholar 39 (1970): 631-54; Hugh Klein, "Adolescence, Youth, and Young Adulthood: Rethinking Current Conceptualizations of Life Stages," Youth & Society 21 (1990): 446-71; Yechezkel Dar, "Youth in the Kibbutz: The Prolonged Transition to Adulthood," Israel Social Science Research 8 (1993): 122-46; James E. Côté, Arrested Adulthood: The Changing Nature of Maturity and Identity (New York: New York University Press, 2000).
44. Erik H Erikson, "Ego Identity and the Psychosocial Moratorium," in New Perspectives for Research on Juvenile Delinquency, ed. H.L. Witmer and R. Kolinsky (Washington, DC: US Department of Health, 1955), 1-23; James E. Côté and Charles Levine, "A Formulation of Erikson's Theory of Ego Identity Formation," Developmental Review 7 (1987): 273-325. On the prolongation of youth into young adulthood, see Kenneth Keniston, "Youth as a Stage of Life," American Scholar 39 (1970): 631-54; Hugh Klein, "Adolescence, Youth, and Young Adulthood: Rethinking Current Conceptualizations of Life Stages," Youth & Society 21 (1990): 446-71; Yechezkel Dar, "Youth in the Kibbutz: The Prolonged Transition to Adulthood," Israel Social Science Research 8 (1993): 122-46; James E. Côté, Arrested Adulthood: The Changing Nature of Maturity and Identity (New York: New York University Press, 2000).
45. Erik H Erikson, "Ego Identity and the Psychosocial Moratorium," in New Perspectives for Research on Juvenile Delinquency, ed. H.L. Witmer and R. Kolinsky (Washington, DC: US Department of Health, 1955), 1-23; James E. Côté and Charles Levine, "A Formulation of Erikson's Theory of Ego Identity Formation," Developmental Review 7 (1987): 273-325. On the prolongation of youth into young adulthood, see Kenneth Keniston, "Youth as a Stage of Life," American Scholar 39 (1970): 631-54; Hugh Klein, "Adolescence, Youth, and Young Adulthood: Rethinking Current Conceptualizations of Life Stages," Youth & Society 21 (1990): 446-71; Yechezkel Dar, "Youth in the Kibbutz: The Prolonged Transition to Adulthood," Israel Social Science Research 8 (1993): 122-46; James E. Côté, Arrested Adulthood: The Changing Nature of Maturity and Identity (New York: New York University Press, 2000).
46. For theoretical outlines of this approach, see Albert Bandura, "Self-Efficacy Mechanism in Human Agency," American Psychologist 37 (1982): 122-47; and Martin E. Ford, "Processes Contributing to Adolescent Social Competence," in Humans as Self-Constructing Living Systems: Putting the Framework to Work, ed. Martin E. Ford and Donald H. Ford (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1987), 199-234. For empirical corroborations, see Jeffrey J. Arnett and Susan Taber, "Adolescence Terminable and Interminable: When Does Adolescence End?" Journal of Youth and Adolescence 23 (1994): 517-37; Scott D. Scheer and Donald G. Unger, "Adolescents Becoming Adults: Attributes for Adulthood," Adolescence 31 (1996): 127-32; and Jeffrey J. Arnett, "Young People's Conceptions of the Transition to Adulthood," Youth and Society 29 (1997): 3-23.
47. For theoretical outlines of this approach, see Albert Bandura, "Self-Efficacy Mechanism in Human Agency," American Psychologist 37 (1982): 122-47; and Martin E. Ford, "Processes Contributing to Adolescent Social Competence," in Humans as Self-Constructing Living Systems: Putting the Framework to Work, ed. Martin E. Ford and Donald H. Ford (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1987), 199-234. For empirical corroborations, see Jeffrey J. Arnett and Susan Taber, "Adolescence Terminable and Interminable: When Does Adolescence End?" Journal of Youth and Adolescence 23 (1994): 517-37; Scott D. Scheer and Donald G. Unger, "Adolescents Becoming Adults: Attributes for Adulthood," Adolescence 31 (1996): 127-32; and Jeffrey J. Arnett, "Young People's Conceptions of the Transition to Adulthood," Youth and Society 29 (1997): 3-23.
48. For theoretical outlines of this approach, see Albert Bandura, "Self-Efficacy Mechanism in Human Agency," American Psychologist 37 (1982): 122-47; and Martin E. Ford, "Processes Contributing to Adolescent Social Competence," in Humans as Self-Constructing Living Systems: Putting the Framework to Work, ed. Martin E. Ford and Donald H. Ford (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1987), 199-234. For empirical corroborations, see Jeffrey J. Arnett and Susan Taber, "Adolescence Terminable and Interminable: When Does Adolescence End?" Journal of Youth and Adolescence 23 (1994): 517-37; Scott D. Scheer and Donald G. Unger, "Adolescents Becoming Adults: Attributes for Adulthood," Adolescence 31 (1996): 127-32; and Jeffrey J. Arnett, "Young People's Conceptions of the Transition to Adulthood," Youth and Society 29 (1997): 3-23.
49. For theoretical outlines of this approach, see Albert Bandura, "Self-Efficacy Mechanism in Human Agency," American Psychologist 37 (1982): 122-47; and Martin E. Ford, "Processes Contributing to Adolescent Social Competence," in Humans as Self-Constructing Living Systems: Putting the Framework to Work, ed. Martin E. Ford and Donald H. Ford (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1987), 199-234. For empirical corroborations, see Jeffrey J. Arnett and Susan Taber, "Adolescence Terminable and Interminable: When Does Adolescence End?" Journal of Youth and Adolescence 23 (1994): 517-37; Scott D. Scheer and Donald G. Unger, "Adolescents Becoming Adults: Attributes for Adulthood," Adolescence 31 (1996): 127-32; and Jeffrey J. Arnett, "Young People's Conceptions of the Transition to Adulthood," Youth and Society 29 (1997): 3-23.
50. For theoretical outlines of this approach, see Albert Bandura, "Self-Efficacy Mechanism in Human Agency," American Psychologist 37 (1982): 122-47; and Martin E. Ford, "Processes Contributing to Adolescent Social Competence," in Humans as Self-Constructing Living Systems: Putting the Framework to Work, ed. Martin E. Ford and Donald H. Ford (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1987), 199-234. For empirical corroborations, see Jeffrey J. Arnett and Susan Taber, "Adolescence Terminable and Interminable: When Does Adolescence End?" Journal of Youth and Adolescence 23 (1994): 517-37; Scott D. Scheer and Donald G. Unger, "Adolescents Becoming Adults: Attributes for Adulthood," Adolescence 31 (1996): 127-32; and Jeffrey J. Arnett, "Young People's Conceptions of the Transition to Adulthood," Youth and Society 29 (1997): 3-23.
51. For the concept of the total institution, see Erving Goffman, Asylums (Chicago: Aldine, 1962).
52. S. Rabinowitz, "Inauguration for Adulthood: The Military System as an Effective Integration for Adult Adaptation: An Israel Air Force Base Perspective," Psychological Reports 51 (1982): 1083-6.
53. See Bennett M. Berger, "On the Youthfulness of Youth Societies," Social Research 30 (1963): 319-42.
54. Concerning the ways that physical separation from parents affects feelings of autonomy and control among young male adults, see Ofra Mayseless and Ilan Hai, "Leaving Home Transition in Israel: Changes in Parent-Adolescent Relationships and Adolescents' Adaptation to Military Service," International Journal of Behavioral Development 22 (1998): 589-609. See also Judith S. Dubas and Anne C. Petersen, "Geographical Distance from Parents and Adjustment during Adolescence and Young Adulthood," in Leaving Home: Understanding the Transition to Adulthood, ed. J.A. Grager and J.S. Dubas (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1996), 3-19.
55. Concerning the ways that physical separation from parents affects feelings of autonomy and control among young male adults, see Ofra Mayseless and Ilan Hai, "Leaving Home Transition in Israel: Changes in Parent-Adolescent Relationships and Adolescents' Adaptation to Military Service," International Journal of Behavioral Development 22 (1998): 589-609. See also Judith S. Dubas and Anne C. Petersen, "Geographical Distance from Parents and Adjustment during Adolescence and Young Adulthood," in Leaving Home: Understanding the Transition to Adulthood, ed. J.A. Grager and J.S. Dubas (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1996), 3-19.
56. See Eva M. Pomerantz and Diana N. Ruble, "The Role of Maternal Control in the Development of Sex Differences in Child Self-Evaluative Factors," Child Development 69 (1998): 458-78. Also see Caroline Guezaine, Marianne Debry and Vinciane Liesens, "Separation from Parents in Late Adolescence: The Same for Boys and Girls?" Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 29 (2000): 79-91.
57. See Eva M. Pomerantz and Diana N. Ruble, "The Role of Maternal Control in the Development of Sex Differences in Child Self-Evaluative Factors," Child Development 69 (1998): 458-78. Also see Caroline Guezaine, Marianne Debry and Vinciane Liesens, "Separation from Parents in Late Adolescence: The Same for Boys and Girls?" Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 29 (2000): 79-91.
58. Summary of second-order factor analysis of cluster scores Cluster Hardships Coping Evaluation of service Difficulty - framework .80 Difficulty - physical .73 Difficulty - interpersonal .66 Difficulty - distance .56 Motivation - intrinsic .79 Motivation - extrinsic .65 Investment .77 Adaptation .61 Quality - social .78 Quality - challenge .53 Benefit - interpersonal .65 Benefit - framework .62 Benefit - distance .87 % explained variance 17.5 18.2 14.5 9.6 The separate appearance of the distance-from-family-and-home factor indicates a great gender difference in this area.
59. The questionnaire was mailed to 1,000 potential participants in the kibbutz. At that time, many were traveling abroad during their "year off allowed to them by the kibbutz. Hence, only 254 women and 196 men responded. An identical questionnaire was randomly distributed to 250 students in the humanities and social sciences in a major Israeli university - a group that roughly matched the kibbutz subjects socioeconomically; 80 percent responded. After eliminating non-urban respondents, 82 men and 101 women remained in the students' sample. To balance group numbers, urban respondents were double weighted.
60. The following table shows the sample composition by gender, rank (officers, other ranks), and unit for men or role for women (bracketed numbers: officers): Women Pre-enlistment Instruction In-service Clerks Total course & command vocational course N 125 (27) 111 69 (6) 151 (4) 456 (37) % 27 (22) 24 (41) 15 (9) 33 (3) 100 (18) Men Elite combat Infantry Armor, Artillery, Non- Total units Antiaircraft, combatant Sappers N 62 (34) 79 (14) 87 (25) 132 (37) 360 (110) % 17 (55) 22 (18) 24 (29) 37 (82) 100 (31)
61. MANOVA detects effects of categorical variables on multiple dependent interval variables. Like ordinary analysis of variance (ANOVA), MANOVA uses categorical independents as predictors, but unlike ANOVA, it handles several dependent variables simultaneously. Accordingly, MANOVA tests the differences in the centroid (vector) of means of the multiple interval dependents for various categories of the independent(s). Hence it is particularly useful in analyzing effects on clusters of intercorrelated dependents. For details, see James H. Bray and Maxwell E. Scott, Multivariate Analysis of Variance, Qualitative Applications in the Social Sciences Series #54 (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1985).
62. Women graduates of in-service vocational courses in our sample included radar operators, electronic technicians, tool operators, draftswomen, medics, and role performers in the intelligence and communication corps. The category of instruction and command consists of instructors for male soldiers in combat professions, operations sergeants and officers, liaison officers, personnel and administration officers, instructors and commanders at the Women Corps, and Youth Army cadet trainers. Graduates of pre-enlistment courses include personal affairs sergeants, education sergeants, psychotechnical evaluators, teachers, and sports trainers.
63. Perception of a more vivid social life may reflect the response to an initially stronger need in women than in men. See James E. Marcia, "Identity in Adolescence," in Handbook of Adolescent Psychology, ed. Joseph Adelson (New York: Riley, 1980), 159-87.
64. Walker and Fennel, "Gender Differences in Role Differentiation. "
65. Dar and Kimhi, "Military Service and Maturation."
66. I b i d.
67. Tova Yedidia recorded a similar attitude among socially disadvantaged women enlistees in '"Being Like Everyone Else' - How Women Soldiers in a Special Enlistment Roster Perceive Their Preparatory Course and Military Service" (M.A. thesis, Hebrew University School of Education, Jerusalem, 1998 [in Hebrew]).