Gender integration in armed forces: Recent policy developments in the United Kingdom

Armed Forces and Society

Volumn 23, Issue 1, 1996, Pages 29-47

  Dandeker, Christopher ^a   Segal, Mady Wechsler ^b  

^a KING'S COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

^b UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0030522901     PISSN: 0095327X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0095327X9602300102     Document Type: Article

References (51)

1. This article is a collaborative effort and the names of the authors are in alphabetical order.
2. Canadian National Defence Ministry, "National Defence to Implement Tribunal's Decision on the Role of Women in the Canadian Forces" (News Release, National Defence Headquarters, Ottawa, Canada, 1 March 1989); P.H.M. Fluttert (Social Sciences Branch, Royal Netherlands Navy), "Lecture and Appendices on the Problem: How to Combat Resistance against the Integration of Women" (Paper delivered at the Conference of the Committee on Women in the NATO Forces, Brussels, 19 June 1991); Gwyn Harries-Jenkins, "Women in the Armed Forces: Integration in the United Kingdom" (Paper delivered at the International Symposium on Women in Armed Forces, Ermatingen, Switzerland, 14-17 Oct.1990); David R. Segal and Mady Wechsler Segal, "Female Combatants in Canada: An Update," Defense Analysis 5, 4 (Winter 1989): 372-373; Sandra Carson Stanley and Mady Wechsler Segal, "Military Women in NATO: An Update," Armed Forces & Society 14 (1988): 559-585; Jim Tice, "Army Opens 18,000 Jobs to Women," Army Times 24 Jan. 1994; "60 Women Assigned to Carrier are First for a Navy Combat Ship," Washington Post, 7 March 1994; Neff Hudson, "Percentage of Women Rises," Air Force Times, 28 Feb. 1994.
3. Canadian National Defence Ministry, "National Defence to Implement Tribunal's Decision on the Role of Women in the Canadian Forces" (News Release, National Defence Headquarters, Ottawa, Canada, 1 March 1989); P.H.M. Fluttert (Social Sciences Branch, Royal Netherlands Navy), "Lecture and Appendices on the Problem: How to Combat Resistance against the Integration of Women" (Paper delivered at the Conference of the Committee on Women in the NATO Forces, Brussels, 19 June 1991); Gwyn Harries-Jenkins, "Women in the Armed Forces: Integration in the United Kingdom" (Paper delivered at the International Symposium on Women in Armed Forces, Ermatingen, Switzerland, 14-17 Oct.1990); David R. Segal and Mady Wechsler Segal, "Female Combatants in Canada: An Update," Defense Analysis 5, 4 (Winter 1989): 372-373; Sandra Carson Stanley and Mady Wechsler Segal, "Military Women in NATO: An Update," Armed Forces & Society 14 (1988): 559-585; Jim Tice, "Army Opens 18,000 Jobs to Women," Army Times 24 Jan. 1994; "60 Women Assigned to Carrier are First for a Navy Combat Ship," Washington Post, 7 March 1994; Neff Hudson, "Percentage of Women Rises," Air Force Times, 28 Feb. 1994.
4. Canadian National Defence Ministry, "National Defence to Implement Tribunal's Decision on the Role of Women in the Canadian Forces" (News Release, National Defence Headquarters, Ottawa, Canada, 1 March 1989); P.H.M. Fluttert (Social Sciences Branch, Royal Netherlands Navy), "Lecture and Appendices on the Problem: How to Combat Resistance against the Integration of Women" (Paper delivered at the Conference of the Committee on Women in the NATO Forces, Brussels, 19 June 1991); Gwyn Harries-Jenkins, "Women in the Armed Forces: Integration in the United Kingdom" (Paper delivered at the International Symposium on Women in Armed Forces, Ermatingen, Switzerland, 14-17 Oct.1990); David R. Segal and Mady Wechsler Segal, "Female Combatants in Canada: An Update," Defense Analysis 5, 4 (Winter 1989): 372-373; Sandra Carson Stanley and Mady Wechsler Segal, "Military Women in NATO: An Update," Armed Forces & Society 14 (1988): 559-585; Jim Tice, "Army Opens 18,000 Jobs to Women," Army Times 24 Jan. 1994; "60 Women Assigned to Carrier are First for a Navy Combat Ship," Washington Post, 7 March 1994; Neff Hudson, "Percentage of Women Rises," Air Force Times, 28 Feb. 1994.
5. Canadian National Defence Ministry, "National Defence to Implement Tribunal's Decision on the Role of Women in the Canadian Forces" (News Release, National Defence Headquarters, Ottawa, Canada, 1 March 1989); P.H.M. Fluttert (Social Sciences Branch, Royal Netherlands Navy), "Lecture and Appendices on the Problem: How to Combat Resistance against the Integration of Women" (Paper delivered at the Conference of the Committee on Women in the NATO Forces, Brussels, 19 June 1991); Gwyn Harries-Jenkins, "Women in the Armed Forces: Integration in the United Kingdom" (Paper delivered at the International Symposium on Women in Armed Forces, Ermatingen, Switzerland, 14-17 Oct.1990); David R. Segal and Mady Wechsler Segal, "Female Combatants in Canada: An Update," Defense Analysis 5, 4 (Winter 1989): 372-373; Sandra Carson Stanley and Mady Wechsler Segal, "Military Women in NATO: An Update," Armed Forces & Society 14 (1988): 559-585; Jim Tice, "Army Opens 18,000 Jobs to Women," Army Times 24 Jan. 1994; "60 Women Assigned to Carrier are First for a Navy Combat Ship," Washington Post, 7 March 1994; Neff Hudson, "Percentage of Women Rises," Air Force Times, 28 Feb. 1994.
6. Canadian National Defence Ministry, "National Defence to Implement Tribunal's Decision on the Role of Women in the Canadian Forces" (News Release, National Defence Headquarters, Ottawa, Canada, 1 March 1989); P.H.M. Fluttert (Social Sciences Branch, Royal Netherlands Navy), "Lecture and Appendices on the Problem: How to Combat Resistance against the Integration of Women" (Paper delivered at the Conference of the Committee on Women in the NATO Forces, Brussels, 19 June 1991); Gwyn Harries-Jenkins, "Women in the Armed Forces: Integration in the United Kingdom" (Paper delivered at the International Symposium on Women in Armed Forces, Ermatingen, Switzerland, 14-17 Oct.1990); David R. Segal and Mady Wechsler Segal, "Female Combatants in Canada: An Update," Defense Analysis 5, 4 (Winter 1989): 372-373; Sandra Carson Stanley and Mady Wechsler Segal, "Military Women in NATO: An Update," Armed Forces & Society 14 (1988): 559-585; Jim Tice, "Army Opens 18,000 Jobs to Women," Army Times 24 Jan. 1994; "60 Women Assigned to Carrier are First for a Navy Combat Ship," Washington Post, 7 March 1994; Neff Hudson, "Percentage of Women Rises," Air Force Times, 28 Feb. 1994.
7. Canadian National Defence Ministry, "National Defence to Implement Tribunal's Decision on the Role of Women in the Canadian Forces" (News Release, National Defence Headquarters, Ottawa, Canada, 1 March 1989); P.H.M. Fluttert (Social Sciences Branch, Royal Netherlands Navy), "Lecture and Appendices on the Problem: How to Combat Resistance against the Integration of Women" (Paper delivered at the Conference of the Committee on Women in the NATO Forces, Brussels, 19 June 1991); Gwyn Harries-Jenkins, "Women in the Armed Forces: Integration in the United Kingdom" (Paper delivered at the International Symposium on Women in Armed Forces, Ermatingen, Switzerland, 14-17 Oct.1990); David R. Segal and Mady Wechsler Segal, "Female Combatants in Canada: An Update," Defense Analysis 5, 4 (Winter 1989): 372-373; Sandra Carson Stanley and Mady Wechsler Segal, "Military Women in NATO: An Update," Armed Forces & Society 14 (1988): 559-585; Jim Tice, "Army Opens 18,000 Jobs to Women," Army Times 24 Jan. 1994; "60 Women Assigned to Carrier are First for a Navy Combat Ship," Washington Post, 7 March 1994; Neff Hudson, "Percentage of Women Rises," Air Force Times, 28 Feb. 1994.
8. Canadian National Defence Ministry, "National Defence to Implement Tribunal's Decision on the Role of Women in the Canadian Forces" (News Release, National Defence Headquarters, Ottawa, Canada, 1 March 1989); P.H.M. Fluttert (Social Sciences Branch, Royal Netherlands Navy), "Lecture and Appendices on the Problem: How to Combat Resistance against the Integration of Women" (Paper delivered at the Conference of the Committee on Women in the NATO Forces, Brussels, 19 June 1991); Gwyn Harries-Jenkins, "Women in the Armed Forces: Integration in the United Kingdom" (Paper delivered at the International Symposium on Women in Armed Forces, Ermatingen, Switzerland, 14-17 Oct.1990); David R. Segal and Mady Wechsler Segal, "Female Combatants in Canada: An Update," Defense Analysis 5, 4 (Winter 1989): 372-373; Sandra Carson Stanley and Mady Wechsler Segal, "Military Women in NATO: An Update," Armed Forces & Society 14 (1988): 559-585; Jim Tice, "Army Opens 18,000 Jobs to Women," Army Times 24 Jan. 1994; "60 Women Assigned to Carrier are First for a Navy Combat Ship," Washington Post, 7 March 1994; Neff Hudson, "Percentage of Women Rises," Air Force Times, 28 Feb. 1994.
9. Canadian National Defence Ministry, "National Defence to Implement Tribunal's Decision on the Role of Women in the Canadian Forces" (News Release, National Defence Headquarters, Ottawa, Canada, 1 March 1989); P.H.M. Fluttert (Social Sciences Branch, Royal Netherlands Navy), "Lecture and Appendices on the Problem: How to Combat Resistance against the Integration of Women" (Paper delivered at the Conference of the Committee on Women in the NATO Forces, Brussels, 19 June 1991); Gwyn Harries-Jenkins, "Women in the Armed Forces: Integration in the United Kingdom" (Paper delivered at the International Symposium on Women in Armed Forces, Ermatingen, Switzerland, 14-17 Oct.1990); David R. Segal and Mady Wechsler Segal, "Female Combatants in Canada: An Update," Defense Analysis 5, 4 (Winter 1989): 372-373; Sandra Carson Stanley and Mady Wechsler Segal, "Military Women in NATO: An Update," Armed Forces & Society 14 (1988): 559-585; Jim Tice, "Army Opens 18,000 Jobs to Women," Army Times 24 Jan. 1994; "60 Women Assigned to Carrier are First for a Navy Combat Ship," Washington Post, 7 March 1994; Neff Hudson, "Percentage of Women Rises," Air Force Times, 28 Feb. 1994.
10. Reuven Gal, A Portrait of the Israeli Soldier (New York: Greenwood Press, 1989.)
11. Minerva's Bulletin Board: The News Magazine on Women in the Military (Spring 1993): 4
12. Mady Wechsler Segal, "Women's Military Roles Cross-Nationally: Past, Present, and Future," Gender & Society 9,6 (Dec. 1995): 757-775; Mady Wechsler Segal, "Toward a Theory of Women in the Armed Forces: Applications to the Future" (Paper delivered at the meetings of the Research Committee on Armed Forces and Conflict Resolution of the International Sociological Association, Valparaiso, Chile, 27-31 August 1992); Sandra Carson Stanley and Mady Wechsler Segal, "Women in the Armed Forces," International Military and Defense Encyclopedia (Washington, DC: Pergamon-Brassey's, 1993), 2449-2455.
13. Mady Wechsler Segal, "Women's Military Roles Cross-Nationally: Past, Present, and Future," Gender & Society 9,6 (Dec. 1995): 757-775; Mady Wechsler Segal, "Toward a Theory of Women in the Armed Forces: Applications to the Future" (Paper delivered at the meetings of the Research Committee on Armed Forces and Conflict Resolution of the International Sociological Association, Valparaiso, Chile, 27-31 August 1992); Sandra Carson Stanley and Mady Wechsler Segal, "Women in the Armed Forces," International Military and Defense Encyclopedia (Washington, DC: Pergamon-Brassey's, 1993), 2449-2455.
14. Mady Wechsler Segal, "Women's Military Roles Cross-Nationally: Past, Present, and Future," Gender & Society 9,6 (Dec. 1995): 757-775; Mady Wechsler Segal, "Toward a Theory of Women in the Armed Forces: Applications to the Future" (Paper delivered at the meetings of the Research Committee on Armed Forces and Conflict Resolution of the International Sociological Association, Valparaiso, Chile, 27-31 August 1992); Sandra Carson Stanley and Mady Wechsler Segal, "Women in the Armed Forces," International Military and Defense Encyclopedia (Washington, DC: Pergamon-Brassey's, 1993), 2449-2455.
15. David R. Segal and Mady Wechsler Segal, "Social Change and the Participation of Women in the American Military," in Research in Social Movements, Conflicts and Change, Vol. 5, ed. Louis Kriesberg (Greenwich: JAI Press, 1983), 235-258; Stanley and Segal, "Military Women in NATO."
16. David R. Segal and Mady Wechsler Segal, "Social Change and the Participation of Women in the American Military," in Research in Social Movements, Conflicts and Change, Vol. 5, ed. Louis Kriesberg (Greenwich: JAI Press, 1983), 235-258; Stanley and Segal, "Military Women in NATO."
17. For a complete definition of these variables and their hypothesized relationship to women's military roles, see Segal, "Women's Military Roles Cross-Nationally." For a feminist critique of the militarization of women's roles, see, e.g., Cynthia Enloe, The Morning After: Sexual Politics at the End of the Cold War (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1993).
18. For a complete definition of these variables and their hypothesized relationship to women's military roles, see Segal, "Women's Military Roles Cross-Nationally." For a feminist critique of the militarization of women's roles, see, e.g., Cynthia Enloe, The Morning After: Sexual Politics at the End of the Cold War (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1993).
19. This act, passed in 1975, required the equal treatment of men and women in employment.
20. Statement on Defence Estimates 1993, Defending our Future, CM 2270, HMSO 1993, 86, para 754; Hugh McManners, "Army Tests Clear Women for Battle," The Sunday Times, 3 December 1995, 8-9.
21. British Military Studies Group (BMSG) Women in the Armed Forces: The UK in Comparative Perspective, 1992: 9; Mark J. Eitelberg, "A Preliminary Assessment of Population Representation in Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm" (Paper presented at the Biennial Conference of the Inter-University Seminar on Armed Forces and Society, Baltimore, Maryland, 1991).
22. British Military Studies Group (BMSG) Women in the Armed Forces: The UK in Comparative Perspective, 1992: 9; Mark J. Eitelberg, "A Preliminary Assessment of Population Representation in Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm" (Paper presented at the Biennial Conference of the Inter-University Seminar on Armed Forces and Society, Baltimore, Maryland, 1991).
23. Personal communications from British officers to the authors.
24. M. Evans, "Portillo Preparing to Back Combat Role for Women Soldiers," The Times, 23 October 1995, p. 9.
25. This issue also arises in current discussions of arguments for and against the formal exclusion of homosexuals from service in the U.K. armed forces. See Gwyn Harries-Jenkins and Christopher Dandeker, "Sexual Orientation and Military Service: The British Case," in Gays and Lesbians in the Military: Issues, Concerns and Contrasts, ed. Wilbur J. Scott and Sandra Carson Stanley (New York: de Gruyter 1994), 191-204.
26. Figures were supplied by the Defence Analytical Services Agency (DASA) and the individual service public relations departments within the Ministry of Defence.
27. This section draws on material supplied by senior RAF officers responsible for personnel.
28. Statement on Defence Estimates, 1995, Vol. 1, Cmnd Paper 2800, p. 85, para 524, Equal Opportunities in the Armed Forces.
29. Material for this section was provided by the Director WRNS in 1991, the director of the WRNS at sea implementation scheme and his staff, and other officials in various navy personnel departments between 1991 and 1994.
30. The Royal Navy, in contrast with the U.S. Navy, took the view that the distinction between combat ships and noncombat support ships made little sense in war. For example, it was argued that evidence from the Falklands Conflict indicated that casualties on supply vessels were just as likely as on warships proper, particularly during replenishment at sea operations.
31. It should also be noted that individual services keep a close watch on each other on the matter of gender integration. This is not only a matter of administrative consistency; each service needs to ensure that, while it meets its own requirements on this issue, it does not suffer from negative publicity by being perceived to be "less progressive" than the other services.
32. Figures were supplied by the public relations department of the Royal Navy.
33. Statement on Defence Estimates 1993, p. 86 para 754.
34. The Royal Navy uses the phrase "around 700" because the actual figure will be slightly higher or lower depending on how many ships and of which class are at sea. Thus the lower figure 657 reflects, in part, the return of HMS Ark Royal to port with its 80 female billets.
35. See, for example, Rosabeth Moss Kanter, "Some Effects of Proportions on Group Life: Skewed Sex Ratios and Responses to Token Women," American Journal of Sociology 82 (March 1977): 965-990.
36. Information provided by Public Relations Department, Royal Navy, November 1995.
37. Nancy L. Goldman, ed., Female Soldiers - Combatants or Noncombatants?: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1982); Stanley and Segal, "Women in the Armed Forces."
38. Nancy L. Goldman, ed., Female Soldiers - Combatants or Noncombatants?: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1982); Stanley and Segal, "Women in the Armed Forces."
39. Segal and Segal, "Social Change and the Participation of Women."
40. Ministry of Defence, "Manning and Recruitment in the Lean Years of the 1990s (MARILYN)" (London: Report of the Adjutant General, MOD, 1989).
41. Ibid.
42. Christopher Dandeker and Alan Strachan, "Soldier Recruitment to the British Army: A Spatial and Social Methodology for Analysis and Monitoring," Armed Forces & Society, 19, 2 (Winter 1993): 279-290.
43. This was the Equal Treatment Directive of the European Commission, 76/207, 9 February 1976.
44. M. Evans, "RAF must pay mother £33,000," The Times, London, 13 October 1993, p. 3; A. Fresco, "Pregnant Officer may get £400,000," The Times, 2 June 1994, p. 3; S. Ward, "Justice of servicewomen's payouts," letter to The Times, 9 June 1994, p. 19.
45. M. Evans, "RAF must pay mother £33,000," The Times, London, 13 October 1993, p. 3; A. Fresco, "Pregnant Officer may get £400,000," The Times, 2 June 1994, p. 3; S. Ward, "Justice of servicewomen's payouts," letter to The Times, 9 June 1994, p. 19.
46. M. Evans, "RAF must pay mother £33,000," The Times, London, 13 October 1993, p. 3; A. Fresco, "Pregnant Officer may get £400,000," The Times, 2 June 1994, p. 3; S. Ward, "Justice of servicewomen's payouts," letter to The Times, 9 June 1994, p. 19.
47. In support of their argument, officials often referred to their understanding of the experiences of the Israeli Defence Forces (IDF). They believed women in combat had distracted men from their military purpose and that this was the reason the Israelis removed women from combat assignment. In reality, however, Israeli women do not serve in combat roles in wartime, and this was decided on political grounds at the time of the formation of the state of Israel and the IDF. See Gal, A Portrait of the Israeli Soldier, 32, 46-57. It appears that this policy of exclusion rests a good deal on protecting women and the fear that female military hostages would make it difficult for the IDF and the government to persevere.
48. See Jason Burke, "Sexual harassment 'rife in army,' Flood of claims expected as female soldier wins damages." Sunday Times. News, 25 June 1995, 17.
49. The MOD is officially committed to equal opportunities policies and monitors officers' careers to check whether policy and practice diverge.
50. On this point see Harries-Jenkins and Dandeker, "Sexual Orientation and Military Service."
51. Statement on Defence Estimates 1995, CM 2800, p. 80, para 508.