Nonconvulsive status epilepticus

Epilepsy and Behavior

Volumn 12, Issue 4, 2008, Pages 572-586

  Maganti, Rama ^a   Gerber, Paula ^a   Drees, Cornelia ^a   Chung, Steve ^a  

^a BARROW NEUROLOGICAL INSTITUTE   (United States)

Author keywords

Nonconvulsive status; Nonconvulsive status epilepticus; Status epilepticus

Indexed keywords

ANESTHETIC AGENT; ANTICONVULSIVE AGENT; BARBITURIC ACID DERIVATIVE; BENZODIAZEPINE DERIVATIVE; CARBAMAZEPINE; DIAZEPAM; ETIRACETAM; FOSPHENYTOIN SODIUM; GABAPENTIN; ISOFLURANE; KETAMINE; LORAZEPAM; MIDAZOLAM; OXCARBAZEPINE; PENTOBARBITAL; PHENOBARBITAL; PHENYTOIN; PROPOFOL; THIOPENTAL; TIAGABINE; TOPIRAMATE; VALPROIC ACID; VIGABATRIN;

ABSENCE; BRAIN DAMAGE; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CLINICAL TRIAL; COMA; COMATOSE PATIENT; COMPLEX PARTIAL SEIZURE; CONSCIOUSNESS; CRITICALLY ILL PATIENT; DISEASE CLASSIFICATION; DISTRIBUTION VOLUME; DRUG CHOICE; DRUG DOSE ESCALATION; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG HALF LIFE; DRUG MEGADOSE; DRUG METABOLISM; DRUG SAFETY; DRUG SUBSTITUTION; DRUG WITHDRAWAL; ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAM; EPILEPSY; EPILEPTIC DISCHARGE; EPILEPTIC STATE; EVIDENCE BASED MEDICINE; HEART ARRHYTHMIA; HIGH RISK POPULATION; HUMAN; HYPERAMMONEMIA; HYPOTENSION; INJECTION SITE REACTION; LOADING DRUG DOSE; METABOLIC DISORDER; MORBIDITY; MORTALITY; NONCONVULSIVE EPILEPTIC STATE; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PATIENT MONITORING; REPEATED DRUG DOSE; RESPIRATORY FAILURE; REVIEW; SIDE EFFECT; SIMPLE PARTIAL SEIZURE; WAVEFORM;

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; AGE FACTORS; AGED; AGED, 80 AND OVER; ANTICONVULSANTS; CHILD; CHILD, PRESCHOOL; HUMANS; MIDDLE AGED; PREVALENCE; SEIZURES; STATUS EPILEPTICUS;

EID: 40849098665     PISSN: 15255050     EISSN: 15255069     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.yebeh.2007.12.002     Document Type: Review

References (120)

1. Kaplan P.W. The clinical features, diagnosis, and prognosis of nonconvulsive status epilepticus. Neurologist 11 (2005) 348-361
2. Niedermeyer E., and Khalifeh R. Petit mal status ("spike-wave stupor"): an electro-clinical appraisal. Epilepsia 6 (1965) 250-262
3. Treiman D.M., DeGiorgio C.M.A., Salisbury S.M., and Wickboldt C.L. Subtle generalized convulsive status epilepticus. Epilepsia 25 (1984) 653
4. Arzimanoglou A., Guerrini R., and Aicardi J. Aicardi's epilepsy in children (2004), Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore
5. Zappoli R. Two cases of prolonged epileptic twilight state with almost continuous wave-spikes: an electroencephalographic study. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol. 7 (1955) 421-423
6. Dan B., and Boyd S. Nonconvulsive (dialeptic) status epilepticus in children. Curr Pediatr Rev 1 (2005) 7-16
7. Niedermeyer E., and Ribeiro M. Considerations of nonconvulsive status epilepticus. Clin Electroencephalogr 31 (2000) 192-195
8. DeLorenzo R.J., Hauser W.A., Towne A.R., et al. A prospective, population-based epidemiologic study of status epilepticus in Richmond, Virginia. Neurology 46 (1996) 1029-1035
9. Hesdorffer D.C., Logroscino G., Cascino G., et al. Incidence of status epilepticus in Rochester, Minnesota, 1965-1984. Neurology 50 (1998) 735-741
10. Coeytaux A., Jallon P., Galobardes B., and Morabia A. Incidence of status epilepticus in French-speaking Switzerland: (EPISTAR). Neurology 55 (2000) 693-697
11. Knake S., Rosenow F., Vescovi M., et al. Incidence of status epilepticus in adults in Germany: a prospective, population-based study. Epilepsia 42 (2001) 714-718
12. Vignatelli L., Tonon C., and D'Alessandro R. Incidence and short-term prognosis of status epilepticus in adults in Bologna, Italy. Epilepsia 44 (2003) 964-968
13. Towne A.R., Waterhouse E.J., Boggs J.G., et al. Prevalence of nonconvulsive status epilepticus in comatose patients. Neurology 54 (2000) 340-345
14. Litt B., Wityk R.J., Hertz S.H., et al. Nonconvulsive status epilepticus in the critically ill elderly. Epilepsia 39 (1998) 1194-1202
15. Claassen J., Myers S.A., Kowalski R.G., Emerson R.G., and Hirsch L.J. Detection of electrographic seizures with continuous EEG monitoring in critically ill patients. Neurology 62 (2004) 1743-1748
16. Jette N., Claassen J., Emerson R.G., and Hirsch L.J. Frequency and predictors of nonconvulsive seizures during continuous electroencephalographic monitoring in critically ill children. Arch Neurol 63 (2006) 1750-1755
17. Tay S.K., Hirsch L.J., Leary L., Jette N., Wittman J., and Akman C.L. Nonconvulsive status epilepticus in children: clinical and EEG characteristics. Epilepsia 47 (2006) 1504-1509
18. Thomas P., Beaumanoir A., Genton P., Dolisi C., and Chatel M. 'De novo' absence status of late onset: report of 11 cases. Neurology 42 (1992) 104-110
19. Dunne J.W., Summers Q.A., and Stewart-Wynne E.G. Non-convulsive status epilepticus: a prospective study in an adult general hospital. Q J Med 62 (1987) 117-126
20. Meierkord H., and Holtkamp M. Non-convulsive status epilepticus in adults: clinical forms and treatment. Lancet Neurol 6 (2007) 329-339
21. Mansford M., Fuller G.N., and Wade J.P. "Silent diabetes": non-ketotic hyperglycaemia presenting as aphasic status epilepticus. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 59 (1995) 99-100
22. Okura M., Okada K., Nagamine I., et al. Electroencephalographic changes during and after water intoxication. Jpn J Psychiatry Neurol 44 (1990) 729-734
23. Eleftheriadis N., Fourla E., Eleftheriadis D., and Karlovasitou A. Status epilepticus as a manifestation of hepatic encephalopathy. Acta Neurol Scand 107 (2003) 142-144
24. Ficker D.M., Westmoreland B.F., and Sharbrough F.W. Epileptiform abnormalities in hepatic encephalopathy. J Clin Neurophysiol 14 (1997) 230-234
25. Saurina A., Vera M., Pou M., and Cases A. Nonconvulsive status epilepticus in dialysis patients. Am J Kidney Dis 39 (2002) 440-441
26. Chow K.M., Wang A.Y., Hui A.C., Wong T.Y., Szeto C.C., and Li P.K. Nonconvulsive status epilepticus in peritoneal dialysis patients. Am J Kidney Dis 38 (2001) 400-405
27. Tsuji M., Tanaka M., Yamakawa M., Sagawa R., and Azuma H. A case of systemic lupus erythematosus with complex partial status epilepticus. Epileptic Disord 7 (2005) 249-251
28. Fernandez-Torre J.L., Martinez-Martinez M., Gonzalez-Rato J., et al. Cephalosporin-induced nonconvulsive status epilepticus: clinical and electroencephalographic features. Epilepsia 46 (2005) 1550-1552
29. Maganti R., Jolin D., Rishi D., and Biswas A. Nonconvulsive status epilepticus due to cefepime in a patient with normal renal function. Epilepsy Behav 8 (2006) 312-314
30. Koussa S.F., Chahine S.L., Samaha E.I., and Riachi M.E. Generalized status epilepticus possibly induced by gatifloxacin. Eur J Neurol 13 (2006) 671-672
31. Kaplan P.W., and Birbeck G. Lithium-induced confusional states: nonconvulsive status epilepticus or triphasic encephalopathy?. Epilepsia 47 (2006) 2071-2074
32. Yoshino A., Yoshimasu H., Tatsuzawa Y., Asakura T., and Hara T. Nonconvulsive status epilepticus in two patients with neuroleptic malignant syndrome. J Clin Psychopharmacol 18 (1998) 347-349
33. Abend N.S., and Dlugos D.J. Nonconvulsive status epilepticus in a pediatric intensive care unit. Pediatr Neurol 37 (2007) 165-170
34. Trinka E., Unterberger I., Spiegel M., et al. De novo aphasic status epilepticus as presenting symptom of multiple sclerosis. J Neurol 249 (2002) 782-783
35. Velioglu S.K., Ozmenoglu M., Boz C., and Alioglu Z. Status epilepticus after stroke. Stroke 32 (2001) 1169-1172
36. Labovitz D.L., Hauser A., and Sacco R.L. Prevalence and predictors of early seizure and status epilepticus after first stroke. Neurology 57 (2001) 200-206
37. Rumbach L., Sablot D., Berger E., Tatu L., Vuillier F., and Moulin T. Status epilepticus in stroke: report on a hospital-based stroke cohort. Neurology 54 (2000) 350-354
38. Little A.S., Kerrigan J.F., McDougall C.G., et al. Nonconvulsive status epilepticus in patients suffering spontaneous subarachnoid hemorrhage. J Neurosurg 106 (2007) 805-811
39. Claassen J., Hirsch L.J., Frontera J.A., et al. Prognostic significance of continuous EEG monitoring in patients with poor-grade subarachnoid hemorrhage. Neurocrit Care 4 (2006) 103-112
40. Narayanan J.T., and Murthy J.M. Nonconvulsive status epilepticus in a neurological intensive care unit: profile in a developing country. Epilepsia 48 (2007) 900-906
41. Vespa P.M., Nuwer M.R., Nenov V., et al. Increased incidence and impact of nonconvulsive and convulsive seizures after traumatic brain injury as detected by continuous electroencephalographic monitoring. J Neurosurg 91 (1999) 750-760
42. Jordan K.G. Nonconvulsive status epilepticus in acute brain injury. J Clin Neurophysiol 16 (1999) 332-340
43. Hussain N., Appleton R., and Thorburn K. Aetiology, course and outcome of children admitted to pediatric intensive care with convulsive status epilepticus: a retrospective 5-year review. Seizure 16 (2007) 305-312
44. Meldrum B.S., and Brierley J.B. Neuronal loss and gliosis in the hippocampus following repetitive epileptic seizures induced in adolescent baboons by allylglycine. Brain Res 48 (1972) 361-365
45. Hosford D.A. Animal models of nonconvulsive status epilepticus. J Clin Neurophysiol 16 (1999) 306-313
46. Krsek P., Mikulecka A., Druga R., Kubova H., Suchomelova l., and Mares P. Long-term behavioral and morphological consequences of nonconvulsive status epilepticus in rats. Epilepsy Behav 5 (2004) 180-191
47. Fountain N.B., and Lothman E.W. Pathophysiology of status epilepticus. J Clin Neurophysiol 12 (1995) 326-342
48. Pal S., Sombati S., Limbrick D.D., and DeLorenzo R.D. In vitro status epilepticus causes sustained elevation of intracellular calcium levels in hippocampal neurons. Brain Res 851 (1999) 20-31
49. Cock H.R. The role of mitochondria and oxidative stress in neuronal damage after brief and prolonged seizures. Prog Brain Res 135 (2002) 187-196
50. Jope R.S., Johnson G.V., and Baird M.S. Seizure-induced protein tyrosine phosphorylation in rat brain regions. Epilepsia 32 (1991) 755-760
51. Sankar R., Shin D.H., Liu H., Mazarati A., Pereira de V., and Westerlain C.G. Patterns of status epilepticus-induced neuronal injury during development and long-term consequences. J Neurosci 18 (1998) 8382-8393
52. Nehlig A., and de Vasconcelos A.P. The model of pentylenetetrazol-induced status epilepticus in the immature rat: short- and long-term effects. Epilepsy Res 26 (1996) 93-103
53. DeGiorgio C.M., Gott P.S., Rabinowicz A.L., et al. Neuron-specific enolase, a marker of acute neuronal injury, is increased in complex partial status epilepticus. Epilepsia 37 (1996) 606-609
54. Tsuchida T.N., Barkovich A.J., Bollen A.W., Hart A.P., and Ferriero D.M. Childhood status epilepticus and excitotoxic neuronal injury. Pediatr Neurol 36 (2007) 253-257
55. Rabinowicz A.L., Correale J.D., Bracht K.A., Smith T.D., and DeGiorgio C.M. Neuron-specific enolase is increased after nonconvulsive status epilepticus. Epilepsia 36 (1995) 475-479
56. O'Regan M.E., and Brown J.K. Serum neuron specific enolase: a marker for neuronal dysfunction in children with continuous EEG epileptiform activity. Eur J Paediatr Neurol 2 4 (1998) 193-197
57. Chu K., KanG D.W., Kim J.Y., Chang K.H., and Lee S.K. Diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging in nonconvulsive status epilepticus. Arch Neurol 58 (2001) 993-998
58. Lansberg M.G., O'Brien M.W., Norbash A.M., Moseley M.E., Morrell M., and Albers G.W. MRI abnormalities associated with partial status epilepticus. Neurology 52 (1999) 1021-1027
59. 1H-MRS, and functional MRI during and after prolonged nonconvulsive seizure activity. Neurology 55 (2000) 1677-1682
60. Rice A.C., Floyd C.L., Lyeth B.G., Hamm R.J., and DeLorenzo R.J. Status epilepticus causes long-term NMDA receptor-dependent behavioral changes and cognitive deficits. Epilepsia 39 (1998) 1148-1157
61. Shorvon S. Does convulsive status epilepticus (SE) result in cerebral damage or affect the course of epilepsy: the epidemiological and clinical evidence?. Prog Brain Res 135 (2002) 85-93
62. Hoffman A.F., Zhao Q., and Holmes G.L. Cognitive impairment following status epilepticus and recurrent seizures during early development: support for the "two-hit hypothesis". Epilepsy Behav 5 (2004) 873-877
63. Dodrill C.B., and Wilensky A.J. Intellectual impairment as an outcome of status epilepticus. Neurology 40 5, Suppl. 2 (1990) 23-27
64. Krumholz A., Sung G.Y., Fisher R.S., Barry G., Bergey G.K., and Grattan L.M. Complex partial status epilepticus accompanied by serious morbidity and mortality. Neurology 45 (1995) 1499-1504
65. Adachi N., Kanemoto K., Muramatsu R., et al. Intellectual prognosis of status epilepticus in adult epilepsy patients: analysis with Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Revised. Epilepsia 46 (2005) 1502-1509
66. Wasterlain C.G., Fujikawa D.G., Penix L., and Sankar R. Pathophysiological mechanisms of brain damage from status epilepticus. Epilepsia 34 Suppl. 1 (1993) S37-S53
67. Guberman A., Cantu-Reyna G., Stuss D., and Broughton R. Nonconvulsive generalized status epilepticus: clinical features, neuropsychological testing, and long-term follow-up. Neurology 36 (1986) 1284-1291
68. Jirsch J., and Hirsch L.J. Nonconvulsive seizures: developing a rational approach to the diagnosis and management in the critically ill population. Clin Neurophysiol 118 (2007) 1660-1670
69. Pandian J.D., Cascino G.D., So E.L., Manno E., and Fulgham J.R. Digital video-electroencephalographic monitoring in the neurological-neurosurgical intensive care unit: clinical features and outcome. Arch Neurol 61 (2004) 1090-1094
70. Brenner R.P. EEG in convulsive and nonconvulsive status epilepticus. J Clin Neurophysiol 21 (2004) 319-331
71. Hirsch L.J., Brenner R.P., Drislane F.W., et al., for the ACNS Subcommittee on Research Terminology for Continuous EEG Monitoring. Proposed standardized terminology for rhythmic and periodic EEG patterns encountered in critically ill patients. J Clin Neurophysiol 22 (2005) 128-135
72. Hirsch L.J., Claassen J., Mayer S.A., and Emerson R.G. Stimulus-induced rhythmic, periodic, or ictal discharges (SIRPIDs): a common EEG phenomenon in the critically ill. Epilepsia 45 (2004) 109-123
73. Brenner R.P., and Schaul N. Periodic EEG patterns: classification, clinical correlation, and pathophysiology. J Clin Neurophysiol 7 (1990) 249-267
74. Reiher J., Rivest J., Grand'Maison F., and Leduc C.P. Periodic lateralized epileptiform discharges with transitional rhythmic discharges: association with seizures. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 78 (1991) 12-17
75. Chatrian G.-E., Shaw C.M., and Leffman H. The significance of periodic lateralized epileptiform discharges in EEG: an electrographic, clinical and pathological study. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 17 (1964) 177-193
76. Chong D.J., and Hirsch L.J. Which EEG patterns warrant treatment in the critically ill? Reviewing the evidence for treatment of periodic epileptiform discharges and related patterns. J Clin Neurophysiol 22 (2005) 79-91
77. Garcia-Morales I., Teresa Garcia M., Galan-Davila L., et al. Periodic lateralized epileptiform discharges: etiology, clinical aspects, seizures, and evolution in 130 patients. J Clin Neurophysiol 19 (2002) 172-177
78. Gurer G., Yemisci M., Saygi S., and Ciger A. Structural lesions in periodic lateralized epileptiform discharges (PLEDs). Clin EEG Neurosci 35 (2004) 88-93
79. Westmoreland B.F., Klass D.W., and Sharbrough F.W. Chronic periodic lateralized epileptiform discharges. Arch Neurol 43 (1986) 494-496
80. Chu N.S. Periodic lateralized epileptiform discharges with preexisting focal brain lesions: role of alcohol withdrawal and anoxic encephalopathy. Arch Neurol 37 (1980) 551-554
81. Yoshikawa H., and Abe T. Periodic lateralized epileptiform discharges in children. J Child Neurol 18 (2003) 803-805
82. Pohlmann-Eden B., Hoch D.B., Cochuis J.L., and Chiappa K.H. Periodic lateralized epileptiform discharges: a critical review. J Clin Neurophysiol 13 (1996) 519-530
83. Handforth A., Cheng J.T., Mandelkern M.A., and Treiman D.M. Markedly increased mesiotemporal lobe metabolism in a case with PLEDs: further evidence that PLEDs are a manifestation of partial status epilepticus. Epilepsia 35 (1994) 876-881
84. Assal F., Papazyan J.P., Slosman D.O., Jallon P., and Goerres G.W. SPECT in periodic lateralized epileptiform discharges (PLEDs): a form of partial status epilepticus?. Seizure 10 (2001) 260-264
85. De la Paz D., and Brenner R.P. Bilateral periodic lateralized epileptiform discharges: clinical significance. Arch Neurol 38 (1981) 713-715
86. Fushimi M., Matsubuchi N., Sekine A., and Shimizu T. Benign bilateral independent periodic lateralized epileptiform discharges. Acta Neurol Scand 108 (2003) 55-59
87. Husain A.M., Mebust K.A., and Radtke R.A. Generalized periodic epileptiform discharges: etiologies, relationship to status epilepticus, and prognosis. J Clin Neurophysiol 16 (1999) 51-58
88. Yemisci M., Gurer G., Saygi S., and Ciger A. Generalised periodic epileptiform discharges: clinical features, neuroradiological evaluation and prognosis in 37 adult patients. Seizure 12 (2003) 465-472
89. Kuroiwa Y., and Celesia G.G. Clinical significance of periodic EEG patterns. Arch Neurol 37 (1980) 15-20
90. Jumao-as A., and Brenner R.P. Myoclonic status epilepticus: a clinical and electroencephalographic study. Neurology 40 (1990) 1199-1202
91. Fisch B.J. Electrographic seizure patterns, pseudoperiodic patterns, and pseudoepileptiform patterns. Fisch and Spehlmann's EEG primer: basic principles of digital and analog EEG (1999), Elsevier, Amsterdam 307-348
92. Bauer G. Coma and brain death. In: Niedermayer E., and Da Silva F.L. (Eds). Electroencephalography: basic principles, clinical applications and related fields. fifth ed. (2005), Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore 471-487
93. Kaya D., and Bingol C.A. Significance of atypical triphasic waves for diagnosing nonconvulsive status epilepticus. Epilepsy Behav 11 4 (2007) 567-577
94. Boulanger J.M., Deacon C., Lécuyer D., Gosselin S., and Reiher J. Triphasic waves versus nonconvulsive status epilepticus: EEG distinction. Can J Neurol Sci 33 (2006) 175-180
95. Treiman D.M., Meyers P.D., Walton N.Y., et al. for the Veterans. Affairs Status Epilepticus Cooperative Study Group. A comparison of four treatments for generalized convulsive status epilepticus. N Engl J Med 339 (1998) 792-798
96. Walker M.C. Treatment of nonconvulsive status epilepticus. Int Rev Neurobiol 81 (2007) 287-297
97. Treiman D.M., and Walker M.C. Treatment of seizure emergencies: convulsive and non-convulsive status epilepticus. Epilepsy Res 68 Suppl. 1 (2006) S77-S82
98. Lowenstein D.H., and Alldredge B.K. Status epilepticus. N Engl J Med 338 (1998) 970-976
99. Lowenstein D.H., Alldredge B.K., Allen F., et al. The prehospital treatment of status epilepticus (PHTSE) study: design and methodology. Control Clin Trials 22 (2001) 290-309
100. Trieman D.M. Pharmacokinetics and clinical use of benzodiazepines in the management of status epilepticus. Epilepsia 30 Suppl. 2 (1989) S4-S10
101. Yu K.T., Mills S., Thompson N., and Cunanan C. Safety and efficacy of intravenous valproate in pediatric status epilepticus and acute repetitive seizures. Epilepsia 44 (2003) 724-726
102. Hovinga C.A., Chicella M.A., Rose D.F., Eades S.K., Dalton J.T., and Phelps S.J. Use of intravenous valproate in three pediatric patients with convulsive or nonconvulsive status epilepticus. Ann Pharmacother 33 (1999) 579-584
103. Sheth R.D., and Gidal B.E. Intravenous valproic acid for myoclonic status epilepticus. Neurology 54 (2000) 1201
104. Towne A.R., Garnett L.K., Waterhouse E.J., Morton L.J., and DeLorenzo R.J. The use of topiramate in refractory status epilepticus. Neurology 60 (2003) 332-334
105. Rossetti A.O., and Bromfield E.B. Levetiracetam in the treatment of status epilepticus in adults: a study of 13 episodes. Eur Neurol 54 (2005) 34-38
106. Atefy R., and Tettenborn B. Nonconvulsive status epilepticus on treatment with levetiracetam. Epilepsy Behav 6 (2005) 613-616
107. Van Ness P.C. Pentobarbital and EEG burst suppression in treatment of status epilepticus refractory to benzodiazepines and phenytoin. Epilepsia 31 (1990) 61-67
108. Parviainen I., Uusaro A., Kalviainen R., Kaukanen E., Mervaala E., and Ruokonen E. High-dose thiopental in the treatment of refractory status epilepticus in intensive care unit. Neurology 59 (2002) 1249-1251
109. Kumar A., and Bleck T.P. Intravenous midazolam for the treatment of refractory status epilepticus. Crit Care Med 20 (1992) 483-488
110. Rossetti A.O., Reichhart M.D., Schaller M.D., Despland P.A., and Bogousslavsky J. Propofol treatment of refractory status epilepticus: a study of 31 episodes. Epilepsia 45 (2004) 757-763
111. Claassen J., Hirsch L.J., Emerson R.G., and Mayer S.A. Treatment of refractory status epilepticus with pentobarbital, propofol, or midazolam: a systematic review. Epilepsia 43 (2002) 146-153
112. Sheth R.D., and Gidal B.E. Refractory status epilepticus: response to ketamine. Neurology 51 (1998) 1765-1766
113. Mirsattari D.M., Sharpe M.D., and Young G.B. Treatment of refractory status epilepticus with inhalational anesthetic agents isoflurane and desflurane. Arch Neurol 61 (2004) 1254-1259
114. Collins M., Marin H., Rutecki P., and Heller D. A protocol for status epilepticus in a long-term care facility using rectal diazepam (Diastat). J Am Med Dir Assoc 2 2 (2001) 66-70
115. Osorio I., Reed R.C., and Peltzer J.N. Refractory idiopathic absence status epilepticus: a probable paradoxical effect of phenytoin and carbamazepine. Epilepsia 41 (2000) 887-894
116. Cockerell O.C., Walker M.C., Sander J.W., and Shorvon S.D. Complex partial status epilepticus: a recurrent problem. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 57 (1994) 835-837
117. Walker M.C. Diagnosis and treatment of nonconvulsive status epilepticus. CNS Drugs 15 (2001) 931-939
118. Fountain N.B. Status epilepticus: risk factors and complications. Epilepsia 41 Suppl. 2 (2000) s22-s30
119. Krumholz A. Epidemiology and evidence for morbidity of nonconvulsive status epilepticus. J Clin Neurophysiol 16 (1999) 314-322
120. Shneker B.F., and Fountain N.B. Assessment of acute morbidity and mortality in nonconvulsive status epilepticus. Neurology 61 (2003) 1066-1073