Explaining labor weakness in post-communist Europe: Historical legacies and comparative perspective

East European Politics and Societies

Volumn 18, Issue 3, 2004, Pages 394-429

  Crowley, Stephen ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

Corporatism; European Union expansion; Labor unions; Post communism; Strikes; Trade unions

Indexed keywords

EID: 4043057312     PISSN: 08883254     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0888325404267395     Document Type: Review

References (177)

1. John E. M. Thirkell, K. Petkov, and S. Vickerstaff, The Transformation of Labour Relations: Restructuring and Privatization in Eastern Europe and Russia (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), preface.
2. Stephen Crowley and David Ost, eds., Workers after Workers' States: Labor and Politics in Post-Communist Eastern Europe (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littefield, 2001); Gregorz Ekiert and Jan Kubik, Rebellious Civil Society: Popular Protest and Democratic Consolidation in Poland, 1989-1993 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1999); Bela Greskovits, The Political Economy of Protest and Patience: East European and Latin American Transformations Compared (Budapest, Hungary: Central European University Press, 1998); Elena A. Iankova, Eastern European Capitalism in the Making (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002); Paul Kubicek, "Organized Labor in Postcommunist States: Will the Western Sun Set on It, Too?" Comparative Politics 32:1(1999); Guglielmo Meardi, Trade Union Activists, East and West: Comparisons in Multinational Companies (Aldershot, UK: Gower, 2000); Mitchell Orenstein and Lisa Hale, "Corporatist Renaissance in Post-Communist Central Europe?" in Christopher Candland and Rudra Sil, eds., The Politics of Labor in a Global Age: Continuity and Change in Late-Industralizing and Post-Socialist Economies (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001); David Ost, "Illusory Corporatism: Tripartism in the Service of Neoliberalism," Politics and Society 28:4(2000); Anna Poliert, Transformation at Work in the New Market Economies of Central Eastern Europe (London: Sage, 1999); Thirkell, Petkov, and Vickerstaff, Transformation of Labour. There are a number of other studies, particularly those that focus on single countries.
3. Stephen Crowley and David Ost, eds., Workers after Workers' States: Labor and Politics in Post-Communist Eastern Europe (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littefield, 2001); Gregorz Ekiert and Jan Kubik, Rebellious Civil Society: Popular Protest and Democratic Consolidation in Poland, 1989-1993 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1999); Bela Greskovits, The Political Economy of Protest and Patience: East European and Latin American Transformations Compared (Budapest, Hungary: Central European University Press, 1998); Elena A. Iankova, Eastern European Capitalism in the Making (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002); Paul Kubicek, "Organized Labor in Postcommunist States: Will the Western Sun Set on It, Too?" Comparative Politics 32:1(1999); Guglielmo Meardi, Trade Union Activists, East and West: Comparisons in Multinational Companies (Aldershot, UK: Gower, 2000); Mitchell Orenstein and Lisa Hale, "Corporatist Renaissance in Post-Communist Central Europe?" in Christopher Candland and Rudra Sil, eds., The Politics of Labor in a Global Age: Continuity and Change in Late-Industralizing and Post-Socialist Economies (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001); David Ost, "Illusory Corporatism: Tripartism in the Service of Neoliberalism," Politics and Society 28:4(2000); Anna Poliert, Transformation at Work in the New Market Economies of Central Eastern Europe (London: Sage, 1999); Thirkell, Petkov, and Vickerstaff, Transformation of Labour. There are a number of other studies, particularly those that focus on single countries.
4. Stephen Crowley and David Ost, eds., Workers after Workers' States: Labor and Politics in Post-Communist Eastern Europe (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littefield, 2001); Gregorz Ekiert and Jan Kubik, Rebellious Civil Society: Popular Protest and Democratic Consolidation in Poland, 1989-1993 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1999); Bela Greskovits, The Political Economy of Protest and Patience: East European and Latin American Transformations Compared (Budapest, Hungary: Central European University Press, 1998); Elena A. Iankova, Eastern European Capitalism in the Making (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002); Paul Kubicek, "Organized Labor in Postcommunist States: Will the Western Sun Set on It, Too?" Comparative Politics 32:1(1999); Guglielmo Meardi, Trade Union Activists, East and West: Comparisons in Multinational Companies (Aldershot, UK: Gower, 2000); Mitchell Orenstein and Lisa Hale, "Corporatist Renaissance in Post-Communist Central Europe?" in Christopher Candland and Rudra Sil, eds., The Politics of Labor in a Global Age: Continuity and Change in Late-Industralizing and Post-Socialist Economies (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001); David Ost, "Illusory Corporatism: Tripartism in the Service of Neoliberalism," Politics and Society 28:4(2000); Anna Poliert, Transformation at Work in the New Market Economies of Central Eastern Europe (London: Sage, 1999); Thirkell, Petkov, and Vickerstaff, Transformation of Labour. There are a number of other studies, particularly those that focus on single countries.
5. Stephen Crowley and David Ost, eds., Workers after Workers' States: Labor and Politics in Post-Communist Eastern Europe (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littefield, 2001); Gregorz Ekiert and Jan Kubik, Rebellious Civil Society: Popular Protest and Democratic Consolidation in Poland, 1989-1993 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1999); Bela Greskovits, The Political Economy of Protest and Patience: East European and Latin American Transformations Compared (Budapest, Hungary: Central European University Press, 1998); Elena A. Iankova, Eastern European Capitalism in the Making (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002); Paul Kubicek, "Organized Labor in Postcommunist States: Will the Western Sun Set on It, Too?" Comparative Politics 32:1(1999); Guglielmo Meardi, Trade Union Activists, East and West: Comparisons in Multinational Companies (Aldershot, UK: Gower, 2000); Mitchell Orenstein and Lisa Hale, "Corporatist Renaissance in Post-Communist Central Europe?" in Christopher Candland and Rudra Sil, eds., The Politics of Labor in a Global Age: Continuity and Change in Late-Industralizing and Post-Socialist Economies (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001); David Ost, "Illusory Corporatism: Tripartism in the Service of Neoliberalism," Politics and Society 28:4(2000); Anna Poliert, Transformation at Work in the New Market Economies of Central Eastern Europe (London: Sage, 1999); Thirkell, Petkov, and Vickerstaff, Transformation of Labour. There are a number of other studies, particularly those that focus on single countries.
6. Stephen Crowley and David Ost, eds., Workers after Workers' States: Labor and Politics in Post-Communist Eastern Europe (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littefield, 2001); Gregorz Ekiert and Jan Kubik, Rebellious Civil Society: Popular Protest and Democratic Consolidation in Poland, 1989-1993 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1999); Bela Greskovits, The Political Economy of Protest and Patience: East European and Latin American Transformations Compared (Budapest, Hungary: Central European University Press, 1998); Elena A. Iankova, Eastern European Capitalism in the Making (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002); Paul Kubicek, "Organized Labor in Postcommunist States: Will the Western Sun Set on It, Too?" Comparative Politics 32:1(1999); Guglielmo Meardi, Trade Union Activists, East and West: Comparisons in Multinational Companies (Aldershot, UK: Gower, 2000); Mitchell Orenstein and Lisa Hale, "Corporatist Renaissance in Post-Communist Central Europe?" in Christopher Candland and Rudra Sil, eds., The Politics of Labor in a Global Age: Continuity and Change in Late-Industralizing and Post-Socialist Economies (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001); David Ost, "Illusory Corporatism: Tripartism in the Service of Neoliberalism," Politics and Society 28:4(2000); Anna Poliert, Transformation at Work in the New Market Economies of Central Eastern Europe (London: Sage, 1999); Thirkell, Petkov, and Vickerstaff, Transformation of Labour. There are a number of other studies, particularly those that focus on single countries.
7. Stephen Crowley and David Ost, eds., Workers after Workers' States: Labor and Politics in Post-Communist Eastern Europe (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littefield, 2001); Gregorz Ekiert and Jan Kubik, Rebellious Civil Society: Popular Protest and Democratic Consolidation in Poland, 1989-1993 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1999); Bela Greskovits, The Political Economy of Protest and Patience: East European and Latin American Transformations Compared (Budapest, Hungary: Central European University Press, 1998); Elena A. Iankova, Eastern European Capitalism in the Making (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002); Paul Kubicek, "Organized Labor in Postcommunist States: Will the Western Sun Set on It, Too?" Comparative Politics 32:1(1999); Guglielmo Meardi, Trade Union Activists, East and West: Comparisons in Multinational Companies (Aldershot, UK: Gower, 2000); Mitchell Orenstein and Lisa Hale, "Corporatist Renaissance in Post-Communist Central Europe?" in Christopher Candland and Rudra Sil, eds., The Politics of Labor in a Global Age: Continuity and Change in Late-Industralizing and Post-Socialist Economies (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001); David Ost, "Illusory Corporatism: Tripartism in the Service of Neoliberalism," Politics and Society 28:4(2000); Anna Poliert, Transformation at Work in the New Market Economies of Central Eastern Europe (London: Sage, 1999); Thirkell, Petkov, and Vickerstaff, Transformation of Labour. There are a number of other studies, particularly those that focus on single countries.
8. Stephen Crowley and David Ost, eds., Workers after Workers' States: Labor and Politics in Post-Communist Eastern Europe (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littefield, 2001); Gregorz Ekiert and Jan Kubik, Rebellious Civil Society: Popular Protest and Democratic Consolidation in Poland, 1989-1993 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1999); Bela Greskovits, The Political Economy of Protest and Patience: East European and Latin American Transformations Compared (Budapest, Hungary: Central European University Press, 1998); Elena A. Iankova, Eastern European Capitalism in the Making (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002); Paul Kubicek, "Organized Labor in Postcommunist States: Will the Western Sun Set on It, Too?" Comparative Politics 32:1(1999); Guglielmo Meardi, Trade Union Activists, East and West: Comparisons in Multinational Companies (Aldershot, UK: Gower, 2000); Mitchell Orenstein and Lisa Hale, "Corporatist Renaissance in Post-Communist Central Europe?" in Christopher Candland and Rudra Sil, eds., The Politics of Labor in a Global Age: Continuity and Change in Late-Industralizing and Post-Socialist Economies (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001); David Ost, "Illusory Corporatism: Tripartism in the Service of Neoliberalism," Politics and Society 28:4(2000); Anna Poliert, Transformation at Work in the New Market Economies of Central Eastern Europe (London: Sage, 1999); Thirkell, Petkov, and Vickerstaff, Transformation of Labour. There are a number of other studies, particularly those that focus on single countries.
9. Stephen Crowley and David Ost, eds., Workers after Workers' States: Labor and Politics in Post-Communist Eastern Europe (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littefield, 2001); Gregorz Ekiert and Jan Kubik, Rebellious Civil Society: Popular Protest and Democratic Consolidation in Poland, 1989-1993 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1999); Bela Greskovits, The Political Economy of Protest and Patience: East European and Latin American Transformations Compared (Budapest, Hungary: Central European University Press, 1998); Elena A. Iankova, Eastern European Capitalism in the Making (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002); Paul Kubicek, "Organized Labor in Postcommunist States: Will the Western Sun Set on It, Too?" Comparative Politics 32:1(1999); Guglielmo Meardi, Trade Union Activists, East and West: Comparisons in Multinational Companies (Aldershot, UK: Gower, 2000); Mitchell Orenstein and Lisa Hale, "Corporatist Renaissance in Post-Communist Central Europe?" in Christopher Candland and Rudra Sil, eds., The Politics of Labor in a Global Age: Continuity and Change in Late-Industralizing and Post-Socialist Economies (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001); David Ost, "Illusory Corporatism: Tripartism in the Service of Neoliberalism," Politics and Society 28:4(2000); Anna Poliert, Transformation at Work in the New Market Economies of Central Eastern Europe (London: Sage, 1999); Thirkell, Petkov, and Vickerstaff, Transformation of Labour. There are a number of other studies, particularly those that focus on single countries.
10. Stephen Crowley and David Ost, eds., Workers after Workers' States: Labor and Politics in Post-Communist Eastern Europe (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littefield, 2001); Gregorz Ekiert and Jan Kubik, Rebellious Civil Society: Popular Protest and Democratic Consolidation in Poland, 1989-1993 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1999); Bela Greskovits, The Political Economy of Protest and Patience: East European and Latin American Transformations Compared (Budapest, Hungary: Central European University Press, 1998); Elena A. Iankova, Eastern European Capitalism in the Making (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002); Paul Kubicek, "Organized Labor in Postcommunist States: Will the Western Sun Set on It, Too?" Comparative Politics 32:1(1999); Guglielmo Meardi, Trade Union Activists, East and West: Comparisons in Multinational Companies (Aldershot, UK: Gower, 2000); Mitchell Orenstein and Lisa Hale, "Corporatist Renaissance in Post-Communist Central Europe?" in Christopher Candland and Rudra Sil, eds., The Politics of Labor in a Global Age: Continuity and Change in Late-Industralizing and Post-Socialist Economies (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001); David Ost, "Illusory Corporatism: Tripartism in the Service of Neoliberalism," Politics and Society 28:4(2000); Anna Poliert, Transformation at Work in the New Market Economies of Central Eastern Europe (London: Sage, 1999); Thirkell, Petkov, and Vickerstaff, Transformation of Labour. There are a number of other studies, particularly those that focus on single countries.
11. Stephen Crowley and David Ost, eds., Workers after Workers' States: Labor and Politics in Post-Communist Eastern Europe (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littefield, 2001); Gregorz Ekiert and Jan Kubik, Rebellious Civil Society: Popular Protest and Democratic Consolidation in Poland, 1989-1993 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1999); Bela Greskovits, The Political Economy of Protest and Patience: East European and Latin American Transformations Compared (Budapest, Hungary: Central European University Press, 1998); Elena A. Iankova, Eastern European Capitalism in the Making (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002); Paul Kubicek, "Organized Labor in Postcommunist States: Will the Western Sun Set on It, Too?" Comparative Politics 32:1(1999); Guglielmo Meardi, Trade Union Activists, East and West: Comparisons in Multinational Companies (Aldershot, UK: Gower, 2000); Mitchell Orenstein and Lisa Hale, "Corporatist Renaissance in Post-Communist Central Europe?" in Christopher Candland and Rudra Sil, eds., The Politics of Labor in a Global Age: Continuity and Change in Late-Industralizing and Post-Socialist Economies (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001); David Ost, "Illusory Corporatism: Tripartism in the Service of Neoliberalism," Politics and Society 28:4(2000); Anna Poliert, Transformation at Work in the New Market Economies of Central Eastern Europe (London: Sage, 1999); Thirkell, Petkov, and Vickerstaff, Transformation of Labour. There are a number of other studies, particularly those that focus on single countries.
12. Crowley and Ost, Workers after Workers' States; Greskovits, Political Economy of Protest; Kubicek, "Organized Labor"; Meardi, Union Activists; Ost, "Illusory Corporatism"; Poliert, Transformation at Work; Thirkell, Petkov, and Vickerstaff, Transformation of Labour.
13. Crowley and Ost, Workers after Workers' States; Greskovits, Political Economy of Protest; Kubicek, "Organized Labor"; Meardi, Union Activists; Ost, "Illusory Corporatism"; Poliert, Transformation at Work; Thirkell, Petkov, and Vickerstaff, Transformation of Labour.
14. Crowley and Ost, Workers after Workers' States; Greskovits, Political Economy of Protest; Kubicek, "Organized Labor"; Meardi, Union Activists; Ost, "Illusory Corporatism"; Poliert, Transformation at Work; Thirkell, Petkov, and Vickerstaff, Transformation of Labour.
15. Crowley and Ost, Workers after Workers' States; Greskovits, Political Economy of Protest; Kubicek, "Organized Labor"; Meardi, Union Activists; Ost, "Illusory Corporatism"; Poliert, Transformation at Work; Thirkell, Petkov, and Vickerstaff, Transformation of Labour.
16. Crowley and Ost, Workers after Workers' States; Greskovits, Political Economy of Protest; Kubicek, "Organized Labor"; Meardi, Union Activists; Ost, "Illusory Corporatism"; Poliert, Transformation at Work; Thirkell, Petkov, and Vickerstaff, Transformation of Labour.
17. Crowley and Ost, Workers after Workers' States; Greskovits, Political Economy of Protest; Kubicek, "Organized Labor"; Meardi, Union Activists; Ost, "Illusory Corporatism"; Poliert, Transformation at Work; Thirkell, Petkov, and Vickerstaff, Transformation of Labour.
18. Crowley and Ost, Workers after Workers' States; Greskovits, Political Economy of Protest; Kubicek, "Organized Labor"; Meardi, Union Activists; Ost, "Illusory Corporatism"; Poliert, Transformation at Work; Thirkell, Petkov, and Vickerstaff, Transformation of Labour.
19. Ekiert and Kubik, Rebellious Civil Society. See also Anna Seleny, "Old Political Rationalities and New Democracies: Compromise and Confrontation in Hungary and Poland," World Politics 51:4(1999): 484-519; Maryjane Osa, "Contention and Democracy: Labor Protest in Poland, 1989-1993," Communist and Post-Communist Studies 31:1(1998): 29-42.
20. Ekiert and Kubik, Rebellious Civil Society. See also Anna Seleny, "Old Political Rationalities and New Democracies: Compromise and Confrontation in Hungary and Poland," World Politics 51:4(1999): 484-519; Maryjane Osa, "Contention and Democracy: Labor Protest in Poland, 1989-1993," Communist and Post-Communist Studies 31:1(1998): 29-42.
21. Ekiert and Kubik, Rebellious Civil Society. See also Anna Seleny, "Old Political Rationalities and New Democracies: Compromise and Confrontation in Hungary and Poland," World Politics 51:4(1999): 484-519; Maryjane Osa, "Contention and Democracy: Labor Protest in Poland, 1989-1993," Communist and Post-Communist Studies 31:1(1998): 29-42.
22. Graeme Robertson, "The Madding Crowd: Politics and Protest in New Democracies" (Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, San Francisco, September 2001). See also the impressive dissertation by Jonathan Terra contrasting Polish unions with their much less influential Czech counterparts. Jonathan Terra, "Influence, Assets and Democracy: Who Got What after the Fall of Communism in East Central Europe?" (Ph.D. diss., Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 2003).
23. Graeme Robertson, "The Madding Crowd: Politics and Protest in New Democracies" (Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, San Francisco, September 2001). See also the impressive dissertation by Jonathan Terra contrasting Polish unions with their much less influential Czech counterparts. Jonathan Terra, "Influence, Assets and Democracy: Who Got What after the Fall of Communism in East Central Europe?" (Ph.D. diss., Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 2003).
24. Iankova, Capitalism in the Making; Iankova, "The Transformative Corporatism of Eastern Europe," East European Politics and Societies 12:2(Spring 1998): 222-64.
25. Iankova, Capitalism in the Making; Iankova, "The Transformative Corporatism of Eastern Europe," East European Politics and Societies 12:2(Spring 1998): 222-64.
26. Ost, "Illusory Corporatism."
27. For studies that draw opposite conclusions about Russian trade unions, see Robertson, "Madding Crowd"; and Calvin Chen and Rudra Sil, "The Transformation of Industrial Relations in Russia and China: Diverging Convergences?" (Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, San Francisco, 2001). A discussion of the Hungarian case will follow.
28. For studies that draw opposite conclusions about Russian trade unions, see Robertson, "Madding Crowd"; and Calvin Chen and Rudra Sil, "The Transformation of Industrial Relations in Russia and China: Diverging Convergences?" (Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, San Francisco, 2001). A discussion of the Hungarian case will follow.
29. Ekiert and Jan Kubik, Rebellious Civil Society; Poliert, Transformation at Work; Iankova, Capitalism in the Making; Robertson, "The Madding Crowd."
30. Ekiert and Jan Kubik, Rebellious Civil Society; Poliert, Transformation at Work; Iankova, Capitalism in the Making; Robertson, "The Madding Crowd."
31. Ekiert and Jan Kubik, Rebellious Civil Society; Poliert, Transformation at Work; Iankova, Capitalism in the Making; Robertson, "The Madding Crowd."
32. Ekiert and Jan Kubik, Rebellious Civil Society; Poliert, Transformation at Work; Iankova, Capitalism in the Making; Robertson, "The Madding Crowd."
33. Greskovits, Political Economy of Protest.
34. Ekiert and Jan Kubik, Rebellious Civil Society.
35. A sixth type of explanation focuses on the political alliances of unions and has elsewhere been called political exchange theory: unions become restive when their political partners are in opposition and less so when their political partners are in power. R. Franzosi, The Puzzle of Strikes: Class and State Strategies in Postwar Italy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995). For reasons of space, it will not be discussed further here.
36. Adam Przeworksi, Democracy and the Market: Political and Economic Reforms in Latin America and Eastern Europe (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 182; Stefan Haggard and Robert Kaufman, The Political Economy of Democratic Transitions (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995), 269; John Walton and D. Seddon, Free Markets and Food Riots: The Politics of Global Adjustment (Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, 1994). See a review of various predictions of "backlash" in Greskovits, Political Economy of Protest.
37. Adam Przeworksi, Democracy and the Market: Political and Economic Reforms in Latin America and Eastern Europe (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 182; Stefan Haggard and Robert Kaufman, The Political Economy of Democratic Transitions (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995), 269; John Walton and D. Seddon, Free Markets and Food Riots: The Politics of Global Adjustment (Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, 1994). See a review of various predictions of "backlash" in Greskovits, Political Economy of Protest.
38. Adam Przeworksi, Democracy and the Market: Political and Economic Reforms in Latin America and Eastern Europe (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 182; Stefan Haggard and Robert Kaufman, The Political Economy of Democratic Transitions (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995), 269; John Walton and D. Seddon, Free Markets and Food Riots: The Politics of Global Adjustment (Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, 1994). See a review of various predictions of "backlash" in Greskovits, Political Economy of Protest.
39. Adam Przeworksi, Democracy and the Market: Political and Economic Reforms in Latin America and Eastern Europe (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 182; Stefan Haggard and Robert Kaufman, The Political Economy of Democratic Transitions (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995), 269; John Walton and D. Seddon, Free Markets and Food Riots: The Politics of Global Adjustment (Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, 1994). See a review of various predictions of "backlash" in Greskovits, Political Economy of Protest.
40. Beverly Crawford, "Post-Communist Political Economy: A Framework for the Analysis of Reform," in Beverly Crawford, ed., Markets, States and Democracy: The Political Economy of Post-Communist Transformations (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1995), 27-28.
41. Branko Milanovic, Income, Inequality, and Poverty during the Transition from Planned to Market Economy (Washington, DC: World Bank, 1998), 6, While official figures may fail to capture informal economic activity, other measures put the decline at only slightly lower levels; Milanovic, Income, Inequality, 26.
42. Branko Milanovic, Income, Inequality, and Poverty during the Transition from Planned to Market Economy (Washington, DC: World Bank, 1998), 6, While official figures may fail to capture informal economic activity, other measures put the decline at only slightly lower levels; Milanovic, Income, Inequality, 26.
43. Milanovic, Income, Inequality, 29-30.
44. Miriam Golden, Michael Wallerstein, and Peter Lange, "Postwar Trade-Union Organization and Industrial Relations In Twelve Countries," in H. Kitschelt et al., eds., Continuity and Change in Contemporary Capitalism (Cambridge; Cambridge University Press, 1999), 198.
45. Kubicek, "Organized Labor." In recent years, union density has dropped in many places throughout the world, yet nowhere more so than in Eastern Europe. In Western Europe, the number of union members declined between 1985 and 1995 by 15.6 percent; in Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union, membership declined by 35,9 percent. (For Bulgaria and Romania, the years of comparison were 1991 and 1993; for Slovakia and the Czech Republic, the years were 1990 and 1995.) ILO World Labor Report, 1997-1998 (Geneva, Switzerland: International Labour Office, 1997), 2, 238.
46. Kubicek, "Organized Labor." In recent years, union density has dropped in many places throughout the world, yet nowhere more so than in Eastern Europe. In Western Europe, the number of union members declined between 1985 and 1995 by 15.6 percent; in Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union, membership declined by 35,9 percent. (For Bulgaria and Romania, the years of comparison were 1991 and 1993; for Slovakia and the Czech Republic, the years were 1990 and 1995.) ILO World Labor Report, 1997-1998 (Geneva, Switzerland: International Labour Office, 1997), 2, 238.
47. Thirkell, Petkov, and Vickerstaff, Transformation of Labour, 86.
48. ILO World Labor Report, 1997-1998.
49. Ronald Ingelhart et al., World Value Surveys and European Values Surveys, 1995-1997 [computer file], ICPRS version (Ann Arbor, MI: Institute for Social Research [producer], 2000); Marc Morje Howard, The Weakness of Civil Society in Post-Communist Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002). Howard reports a lower figure of 19.6 percent for post-communist union membership, but I have adjusted the survey data so it reflects only the nonagricultural labor force.
50. Ronald Ingelhart et al., World Value Surveys and European Values Surveys, 1995-1997 [computer file], ICPRS version (Ann Arbor, MI: Institute for Social Research [producer], 2000); Marc Morje Howard, The Weakness of Civil Society in Post-Communist Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002). Howard reports a lower figure of 19.6 percent for post-communist union membership, but I have adjusted the survey data so it reflects only the nonagricultural labor force.
51. It is worth noting two further points about the East European union density figures. First, and rather surprisingly, Poland is the least unionized of those post-communist countries surveyed (and a close second to Estonia according to the ILO data). Second, only the (less "reformed") post-Soviet states of Belarus and Russia have density figures that are higher than the West European average.
52. Exact comparisons between countries are difficult since different methods are used for compiling statistics. Nevertheless, the difference between Western and Eastern Europe are large enough to suggest a real difference In the phenomenon being measured. As Shalev notes, the limitations of strike statistics are well known, but so is the equally well-rehearsed reply-they are better than nothing, Michael Shalev, "The Resurgence of Labor Quiescence," in M. Regini, ed., The Future of Labour Movements (London; Sage, 1992). In her discussion of the Russian case, Javeline finds that survey evidence supports the general parameters of the official strike data. Debra Javeline, Protest and the Politics of Blame: The Russian Response to Unpaid Wages (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2003).
53. Exact comparisons between countries are difficult since different methods are used for compiling statistics. Nevertheless, the difference between Western and Eastern Europe are large enough to suggest a real difference In the phenomenon being measured. As Shalev notes, the limitations of strike statistics are well known, but so is the equally well-rehearsed reply-they are better than nothing, Michael Shalev, "The Resurgence of Labor Quiescence," in M. Regini, ed., The Future of Labour Movements (London; Sage, 1992). In her discussion of the Russian case, Javeline finds that survey evidence supports the general parameters of the official strike data. Debra Javeline, Protest and the Politics of Blame: The Russian Response to Unpaid Wages (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2003).
54. The figures for some Western Europe countries are from 1989 to 1998, while the rest are from 1992 to 2001, though data are missing for some countries in some years. International Labor Organization, 2002 Yearbook of Labour Statistics (Geneva, Switzerland: International Labour Office, 2002); J. Davies, "International Comparisons of Labour Disputes," Labour Market Trends 108:4(2000).
55. The figures for some Western Europe countries are from 1989 to 1998, while the rest are from 1992 to 2001, though data are missing for some countries in some years. International Labor Organization, 2002 Yearbook of Labour Statistics (Geneva, Switzerland: International Labour Office, 2002); J. Davies, "International Comparisons of Labour Disputes," Labour Market Trends 108:4(2000).
56. In their study of protest events in four East-Central European countries, Gregorz Ekiert and Jan Kubik found that "the magnitude of protest is by and large lower than in more established democracies" (Ekiert and Kubik, Rebellious Civil Society, 573; original emphasis), Since their study relied on the content analysis of newspaper accounts, it provides another indirect support for the general shape of the strike data. Moreover, since their study looked at protest generally, their findings suggest that quiescence is not confined to workers, a conclusion that might also be extended to civil society generally, On this point, see Howard, Weakness of Civil Society.
57. In their study of protest events in four East-Central European countries, Gregorz Ekiert and Jan Kubik found that "the magnitude of protest is by and large lower than in more established democracies" (Ekiert and Kubik, Rebellious Civil Society, 573; original emphasis), Since their study relied on the content analysis of newspaper accounts, it provides another indirect support for the general shape of the strike data. Moreover, since their study looked at protest generally, their findings suggest that quiescence is not confined to workers, a conclusion that might also be extended to civil society generally, On this point, see Howard, Weakness of Civil Society.
58. Moreover, the finding of labor quiescence among industrial workers is furthered when one breaks down the strike data by sector. For example, in Russia, which has the second highest strike rate in the region, a majority of those on strike have been teachers. See ILO, 2002 Yearbook. While there may be good reasons why teachers would strike, given the wide-spread phenomenon of wage arrears across Russian industries in the recent past, the lack of greater strike activity demands explanation. See Javeline, Protest.
59. Moreover, the finding of labor quiescence among industrial workers is furthered when one breaks down the strike data by sector. For example, in Russia, which has the second highest strike rate in the region, a majority of those on strike have been teachers. See ILO, 2002 Yearbook. While there may be good reasons why teachers would strike, given the wide-spread phenomenon of wage arrears across Russian industries in the recent past, the lack of greater strike activity demands explanation. See Javeline, Protest.
60. John Kelly, Rethinking Industrial Relations: Mobilization, Collectivism and Long Waves (London: Routledge, 1998), 10.
61. Peter Havlik, "Trade and Cost Competitiveness in the Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, and Slovenia," World Bank Technical Paper No. 482 (Washington, DC: World Bank, 2000).
62. Golden, Wallerstein, and Lange, "Trade-Union Organization," 202.
63. Mario Lado, "Industrial Relations in the Candidate Countries," European Industrial Relations Observatory On-line, http://www.eiro.eurofound.ie/ 2002/07/feature/tn0207102f.html/, July 2002, Slovenia is an outlier on this and most other dimensions of labor relations, and a complete explanation as to why would require a full-length article of its own. The West European average is from 1995. ILO World Labor Report, 1997-1998, 248.
64. Mario Lado, "Industrial Relations in the Candidate Countries," European Industrial Relations Observatory On-line, http://www.eiro.eurofound.ie/ 2002/07/feature/tn0207102f.html/, July 2002, Slovenia is an outlier on this and most other dimensions of labor relations, and a complete explanation as to why would require a full-length article of its own. The West European average is from 1995. ILO World Labor Report, 1997-1998, 248.
65. Laszlo Neumann, "Does Decentralized Collective Bargaining Have an Impact on the Labour Market in Hungary?" European Journal of Industrial Relations 8:1(2002): 11-31.
66. Neumann, "Collective Bargaining," 12. One survey of managers in Hungary found that trade unions and labor issues were almost of no concern; trade unions were described as "irrelevant" and having "no influence" on managers' decisions. Marc Ellingstad, "The Maqulladora Syndrome: Central European Prospects," Europe-Asia Studies 49:1(1997).
67. Neumann, "Collective Bargaining," 12. One survey of managers in Hungary found that trade unions and labor issues were almost of no concern; trade unions were described as "irrelevant" and having "no influence" on managers' decisions. Marc Ellingstad, "The Maqulladora Syndrome: Central European Prospects," Europe-Asia Studies 49:1(1997).
68. Michael Wallace and Craig Jenkins, "The New Class, Postindustriallsm, and Neocorporatism: Three Images of Social Protest in Western Democracies," in Craig Jenkins and Bert Klandermans, eds., The Politics of Social Protest (University of Minnesota Press, 1995); Philippe Schmltter, "Interest Intermediation and Regime Governability in Contemporary Western Europe and North America," in Suzanne Berger, ed., Organizing Interests in Western Europe (Czmbndge: Cambridge University Press, 1981); David Cameron, "Social Democracy, Corporatism, Labour Quiescence and the Representation of Economic Interest in Advanced Capitalist Society," in J. Goldthorpe, ed., Order and Conflict in Contemporary Capitalism (Oxford, UK: Clarendon, 1984).
69. Michael Wallace and Craig Jenkins, "The New Class, Postindustriallsm, and Neocorporatism: Three Images of Social Protest in Western Democracies," in Craig Jenkins and Bert Klandermans, eds., The Politics of Social Protest (University of Minnesota Press, 1995); Philippe Schmltter, "Interest Intermediation and Regime Governability in Contemporary Western Europe and North America," in Suzanne Berger, ed., Organizing Interests in Western Europe (Czmbndge: Cambridge University Press, 1981); David Cameron, "Social Democracy, Corporatism, Labour Quiescence and the Representation of Economic Interest in Advanced Capitalist Society," in J. Goldthorpe, ed., Order and Conflict in Contemporary Capitalism (Oxford, UK: Clarendon, 1984).
70. Michael Wallace and Craig Jenkins, "The New Class, Postindustriallsm, and Neocorporatism: Three Images of Social Protest in Western Democracies," in Craig Jenkins and Bert Klandermans, eds., The Politics of Social Protest (University of Minnesota Press, 1995); Philippe Schmltter, "Interest Intermediation and Regime Governability in Contemporary Western Europe and North America," in Suzanne Berger, ed., Organizing Interests in Western Europe (Czmbndge: Cambridge University Press, 1981); David Cameron, "Social Democracy, Corporatism, Labour Quiescence and the Representation of Economic Interest in Advanced Capitalist Society," in J. Goldthorpe, ed., Order and Conflict in Contemporary Capitalism (Oxford, UK: Clarendon, 1984).
71. Ost, "Illusory Corporatism," 504.
72. Elena Iankova and Lowell Turner, "Building the New Europe: Eastern and Western Roads to Social Partnership" (Paper presented for the 12th International Conference of Europeanists, Chicago, 30 March 30 to 1 April 2000); The question of corporatism has been the most widely discussed aspect of labor relations in post-communist countries. Given this extensive literature, we will review it only very briefly here, and will focus on changes over time in tripartite institutions, to ask whether such changes have resulted in changes in labor peace or mobilization.
73. Iankova, Capitalism in the Making; Iankova, "Transformative Corporatism"; Lajos Hethy, "Tripartism in Eastern Europe," in R. Hyman and A. Ferner, eds., New Frontiers in European Industrial Relations (Oxford, UK: Blackwell, 1994).
74. Iankova, Capitalism in the Making; Iankova, "Transformative Corporatism"; Lajos Hethy, "Tripartism in Eastern Europe," in R. Hyman and A. Ferner, eds., New Frontiers in European Industrial Relations (Oxford, UK: Blackwell, 1994).
75. Iankova, Capitalism in the Making; Iankova, "Transformative Corporatism"; Lajos Hethy, "Tripartism in Eastern Europe," in R. Hyman and A. Ferner, eds., New Frontiers in European Industrial Relations (Oxford, UK: Blackwell, 1994).
76. Iankova, Capitalism in the Making, 9. See also ILO World Labor Report, 1997-1998. A more equivocal account of corporatism in the region is given by Orenstein and Hale, "Corporatist Renaissance?"
77. Iankova, Capitalism in the Making, 9. See also ILO World Labor Report, 1997-1998. A more equivocal account of corporatism in the region is given by Orenstein and Hale, "Corporatist Renaissance?"
78. Iankova, Capitalism in the Making, 9. See also ILO World Labor Report, 1997-1998. A more equivocal account of corporatism in the region is given by Orenstein and Hale, "Corporatist Renaissance?"
79. Janos Kornai, "Paying the Bill for Goulash-Communism: Hungarian Development and Macro Stabilization in a Political-Economy Perspective," Discussion Paper Series, Harvard Institute of Economic Research (1996), as cited in Ekiert and Kubik, Rebellious Civil Society; Hethy, "Tripartism," 92.
80. Janos Kornai, "Paying the Bill for Goulash-Communism: Hungarian Development and Macro Stabilization in a Political-Economy Perspective," Discussion Paper Series, Harvard Institute of Economic Research (1996), as cited in Ekiert and Kubik, Rebellious Civil Society; Hethy, "Tripartism," 92.
81. Janos Kornai, "Paying the Bill for Goulash-Communism: Hungarian Development and Macro Stabilization in a Political-Economy Perspective," Discussion Paper Series, Harvard Institute of Economic Research (1996), as cited in Ekiert and Kubik, Rebellious Civil Society; Hethy, "Tripartism," 92.
82. The quotations are from, respectively, Melanie Tatur, "Towards Corporatism? The Transformation of Interest Policy and Interest Regulation in Eastern Europe," in Eckhard Dittrich, Gert Schmidt, and Richard Whitley, eds., Industrial Transformation in Europe (London: Sage, 1995); Ost, "Illusory Corporatism"; Peter Rutland, "Thatcherism Czech Style," Telos 94 (Winter 1992-1993).
83. The quotations are from, respectively, Melanie Tatur, "Towards Corporatism? The Transformation of Interest Policy and Interest Regulation in Eastern Europe," in Eckhard Dittrich, Gert Schmidt, and Richard Whitley, eds., Industrial Transformation in Europe (London: Sage, 1995); Ost, "Illusory Corporatism"; Peter Rutland, "Thatcherism Czech Style," Telos 94 (Winter 1992-1993).
84. The quotations are from, respectively, Melanie Tatur, "Towards Corporatism? The Transformation of Interest Policy and Interest Regulation in Eastern Europe," in Eckhard Dittrich, Gert Schmidt, and Richard Whitley, eds., Industrial Transformation in Europe (London: Sage, 1995); Ost, "Illusory Corporatism"; Peter Rutland, "Thatcherism Czech Style," Telos 94 (Winter 1992-1993).
85. Poliert, Transformation at Work, 165; Thlrkell, Petkov, and Vickerstaff, Transformation of Labour, 166. Other studies reaching similar conclusions include Kubicek, "Organized Labor"; Crowley and Ost, Workers after Workers' States; Reinhard Heinisch, "The State of Corporatism in a Central Europe In Transition," In Irwin Collier et al., eds., Welfare States in Transition: East and West (Basingstoke, UK: Macmillan, 1999); Walter Connor, Tattered Banners: Labor, Conflict and Corporatism in Postcommunist Russia (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1996).
86. Poliert, Transformation at Work, 165; Thlrkell, Petkov, and Vickerstaff, Transformation of Labour, 166. Other studies reaching similar conclusions include Kubicek, "Organized Labor"; Crowley and Ost, Workers after Workers' States; Reinhard Heinisch, "The State of Corporatism in a Central Europe In Transition," In Irwin Collier et al., eds., Welfare States in Transition: East and West (Basingstoke, UK: Macmillan, 1999); Walter Connor, Tattered Banners: Labor, Conflict and Corporatism in Postcommunist Russia (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1996).
87. Poliert, Transformation at Work, 165; Thlrkell, Petkov, and Vickerstaff, Transformation of Labour, 166. Other studies reaching similar conclusions include Kubicek, "Organized Labor"; Crowley and Ost, Workers after Workers' States; Reinhard Heinisch, "The State of Corporatism in a Central Europe In Transition," In Irwin Collier et al., eds., Welfare States in Transition: East and West (Basingstoke, UK: Macmillan, 1999); Walter Connor, Tattered Banners: Labor, Conflict and Corporatism in Postcommunist Russia (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1996).
88. Poliert, Transformation at Work, 165; Thlrkell, Petkov, and Vickerstaff, Transformation of Labour, 166. Other studies reaching similar conclusions include Kubicek, "Organized Labor"; Crowley and Ost, Workers after Workers' States; Reinhard Heinisch, "The State of Corporatism in a Central Europe In Transition," In Irwin Collier et al., eds., Welfare States in Transition: East and West (Basingstoke, UK: Macmillan, 1999); Walter Connor, Tattered Banners: Labor, Conflict and Corporatism in Postcommunist Russia (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1996).
89. Poliert, Transformation at Work, 165; Thlrkell, Petkov, and Vickerstaff, Transformation of Labour, 166. Other studies reaching similar conclusions include Kubicek, "Organized Labor"; Crowley and Ost, Workers after Workers' States; Reinhard Heinisch, "The State of Corporatism in a Central Europe In Transition," In Irwin Collier et al., eds., Welfare States in Transition: East and West (Basingstoke, UK: Macmillan, 1999); Walter Connor, Tattered Banners: Labor, Conflict and Corporatism in Postcommunist Russia (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1996).
90. Poliert, Transformation at Work, 165; Thlrkell, Petkov, and Vickerstaff, Transformation of Labour, 166. Other studies reaching similar conclusions include Kubicek, "Organized Labor"; Crowley and Ost, Workers after Workers' States; Reinhard Heinisch, "The State of Corporatism in a Central Europe In Transition," In Irwin Collier et al., eds., Welfare States in Transition: East and West (Basingstoke, UK: Macmillan, 1999); Walter Connor, Tattered Banners: Labor, Conflict and Corporatism in Postcommunist Russia (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1996).
91. Ekiert and Kubik, Rebellious Civil Society. See also Seleny, "Political Rationalities." For a critique of Ekiert and Kubik's argument along different lines than those made here, see Mark Kramer, "Collective Protests and Democratization in Poland, 1989-1993: Was Civil Society Really 'Rebellious'?" Communist and Postcommunist Studies 35 (2002), and the response by Ekiert and Kubik and the rejoinder by Kramer in the same issue.
92. Ekiert and Kubik, Rebellious Civil Society. See also Seleny, "Political Rationalities." For a critique of Ekiert and Kubik's argument along different lines than those made here, see Mark Kramer, "Collective Protests and Democratization in Poland, 1989-1993: Was Civil Society Really 'Rebellious'?" Communist and Postcommunist Studies 35 (2002), and the response by Ekiert and Kubik and the rejoinder by Kramer in the same issue.
93. Ekiert and Kubik, Rebellious Civil Society. See also Seleny, "Political Rationalities." For a critique of Ekiert and Kubik's argument along different lines than those made here, see Mark Kramer, "Collective Protests and Democratization in Poland, 1989-1993: Was Civil Society Really 'Rebellious'?" Communist and Postcommunist Studies 35 (2002), and the response by Ekiert and Kubik and the rejoinder by Kramer in the same issue.
94. Poland's strike rate (days not worked per thousand workers per year) for 1993 to 1994 was 60.5, while it was 5.8 in Hungary (and Polish data are unavailable for 1992, which would bring the figure higher), But for 1995 to 1999, the Polish rate drops substantially to 5.3, while the Hungarian rate rises to 21.5. See ILO, 2002 Yearbook. Thus, by this measure, Seleny's contention that "labor mobilization, then, has become a conspicuous and enduring characteristic of political life in Poland" appears unwarranted. Seleny, "Political Rationalities," 490.
95. Poland's strike rate (days not worked per thousand workers per year) for 1993 to 1994 was 60.5, while it was 5.8 in Hungary (and Polish data are unavailable for 1992, which would bring the figure higher), But for 1995 to 1999, the Polish rate drops substantially to 5.3, while the Hungarian rate rises to 21.5. See ILO, 2002 Yearbook. Thus, by this measure, Seleny's contention that "labor mobilization, then, has become a conspicuous and enduring characteristic of political life in Poland" appears unwarranted. Seleny, "Political Rationalities," 490.
96. Kubicek, "Organized Labor," 223; see also Andras Toth, "The Failure of Social-Democratic Unionism in Hungary," in Crowley and Ost, Workers after Workers' States; Greskovits, Political Economy of Protest.
97. Kubicek, "Organized Labor," 223; see also Andras Toth, "The Failure of Social-Democratic Unionism in Hungary," in Crowley and Ost, Workers after Workers' States; Greskovits, Political Economy of Protest.
98. Kubicek, "Organized Labor," 223; see also Andras Toth, "The Failure of Social-Democratic Unionism in Hungary," in Crowley and Ost, Workers after Workers' States; Greskovits, Political Economy of Protest.
99. Pollert, Transformation at Work, 144; Ost, "Illusory Corporatism"; Toth, "Failure."
100. Pollert, Transformation at Work, 144; Ost, "Illusory Corporatism"; Toth, "Failure."
101. Pollert, Transformation at Work, 144; Ost, "Illusory Corporatism"; Toth, "Failure."
102. Ost, "Illusory Corporatism." On a connection between tripartism and a decline of strikes in Poland, see Orenstein and Hale, "Corporatist Renaissance?" 277-78.
103. Ost, "Illusory Corporatism." On a connection between tripartism and a decline of strikes in Poland, see Orenstein and Hale, "Corporatist Renaissance?" 277-78.
104. Iankova, Capitalism in the Making; idem, "Transformative Corporatism"; Orenstein and Hale, "Corporatist Renaissance?"
105. Iankova, Capitalism in the Making; idem, "Transformative Corporatism"; Orenstein and Hale, "Corporatist Renaissance?"
106. Iankova, Capitalism in the Making; idem, "Transformative Corporatism"; Orenstein and Hale, "Corporatist Renaissance?"
107. Ekiert and Kubik, Rebellious Civil Society, 189; idem, "Contentious Politics in New Democracies; East Germany, Hungary, Poland and Slovakia, 1989-1993," World Politics 50:4(1998).
108. Ekiert and Kubik, Rebellious Civil Society, 189; idem, "Contentious Politics in New Democracies; East Germany, Hungary, Poland and Slovakia, 1989-1993," World Politics 50:4(1998).
109. Ekiert and Kubik, Rebellious Civil Society, 106.
110. Ekiert and Kublk, Rebellious Civil Society, 106. For the view that fragmentation weakens labor, see Cameron, "Social Democracy."
111. Ekiert and Kublk, Rebellious Civil Society, 106. For the view that fragmentation weakens labor, see Cameron, "Social Democracy."
112. Thirkell, Petkov, and Vickerstaff, Transformation of Labour, 87. A number of others see fragmentation weakening labor in post-communist societies. Heinisch, "State of Corporatism"; Orenstein and Hale, "Corporatist Renaissance?" Kubicek, "Organized Labor"; Chen and Sil, "Transformation."
113. Thirkell, Petkov, and Vickerstaff, Transformation of Labour, 87. A number of others see fragmentation weakening labor in post-communist societies. Heinisch, "State of Corporatism"; Orenstein and Hale, "Corporatist Renaissance?" Kubicek, "Organized Labor"; Chen and Sil, "Transformation."
114. Thirkell, Petkov, and Vickerstaff, Transformation of Labour, 87. A number of others see fragmentation weakening labor in post-communist societies. Heinisch, "State of Corporatism"; Orenstein and Hale, "Corporatist Renaissance?" Kubicek, "Organized Labor"; Chen and Sil, "Transformation."
115. Thirkell, Petkov, and Vickerstaff, Transformation of Labour, 87. A number of others see fragmentation weakening labor in post-communist societies. Heinisch, "State of Corporatism"; Orenstein and Hale, "Corporatist Renaissance?" Kubicek, "Organized Labor"; Chen and Sil, "Transformation."
116. Thirkell, Petkov, and Vickerstaff, Transformation of Labour, 87. A number of others see fragmentation weakening labor in post-communist societies. Heinisch, "State of Corporatism"; Orenstein and Hale, "Corporatist Renaissance?" Kubicek, "Organized Labor"; Chen and Sil, "Transformation."
117. Kubicek, "Organized Labor"; see also Carola Frege and Andras Toth, "Institutions Matter: Union Solidarity in Hungary and East Germany," British Journal of Industrial Relations 37:1(March, 1999): 120-21; Orenstein and Hale, "Corporatist Renaissance?" Toth, "Failure"; Poliert, Transformation at Work, 165-66.
118. Kubicek, "Organized Labor"; see also Carola Frege and Andras Toth, "Institutions Matter: Union Solidarity in Hungary and East Germany," British Journal of Industrial Relations 37:1(March, 1999): 120-21; Orenstein and Hale, "Corporatist Renaissance?" Toth, "Failure"; Poliert, Transformation at Work, 165-66.
119. Kubicek, "Organized Labor"; see also Carola Frege and Andras Toth, "Institutions Matter: Union Solidarity in Hungary and East Germany," British Journal of Industrial Relations 37:1(March, 1999): 120-21; Orenstein and Hale, "Corporatist Renaissance?" Toth, "Failure"; Poliert, Transformation at Work, 165-66.
120. Kubicek, "Organized Labor"; see also Carola Frege and Andras Toth, "Institutions Matter: Union Solidarity in Hungary and East Germany," British Journal of Industrial Relations 37:1(March, 1999): 120-21; Orenstein and Hale, "Corporatist Renaissance?" Toth, "Failure"; Poliert, Transformation at Work, 165-66.
121. Kubicek, "Organized Labor"; see also Carola Frege and Andras Toth, "Institutions Matter: Union Solidarity in Hungary and East Germany," British Journal of Industrial Relations 37:1(March, 1999): 120-21; Orenstein and Hale, "Corporatist Renaissance?" Toth, "Failure"; Poliert, Transformation at Work, 165-66.
122. Robertson, "The Madding Crowd," 7.
123. Greskovits, "Political Economy of Protest," 160-61.
124. Toth, "Failure," 44. While the leading National Confederation of Hungarian Trade Unions (MSZOZS), dominated those elections, the puzzle of labor peace in Hungary begins before the elections in 1993.
125. Ekiert and Kubik, Rebellious Civil Society, Robertson, "The Madding Crowd."
126. Ekiert and Kubik, Rebellious Civil Society, Robertson, "The Madding Crowd."
127. David Kideckel, "Winning the Battles, Losing the War: Contradictions of Romanian Labor in the Postcommunist Transformation," in Crowley and Ost, Workers after Workers' States, 104. Likewise, Thompson and Traxler find that, "rivalling Hungary for complexity." in Romania, "independent confederations formed largely from autonomous and sectoral bodies." Paul Thompson and Franz Traxler, "The Transformation of Industrial Relations in Postsocialist Economies," in Gerd Schienstock, Paul Thompson, and Franz Traxler, eds., Industrial Relations between Command and Market: A Comparative Analysis of Eastern Europe and China (New York: Nova Science Publishers, 1997).
128. David Kideckel, "Winning the Battles, Losing the War: Contradictions of Romanian Labor in the Postcommunist Transformation," in Crowley and Ost, Workers after Workers' States, 104. Likewise, Thompson and Traxler find that, "rivalling Hungary for complexity." in Romania, "independent confederations formed largely from autonomous and sectoral bodies." Paul Thompson and Franz Traxler, "The Transformation of Industrial Relations in Postsocialist Economies," in Gerd Schienstock, Paul Thompson, and Franz Traxler, eds., Industrial Relations between Command and Market: A Comparative Analysis of Eastern Europe and China (New York: Nova Science Publishers, 1997).
129. Pollert, Transformation at Work; David Ost, "The Weakness of Symbolic Strength; Labor and Union Identity in Poland, 1989-2000," in Crowley and Ost, Workers after Workers' States.
130. Pollert, Transformation at Work; David Ost, "The Weakness of Symbolic Strength; Labor and Union Identity in Poland, 1989-2000," in Crowley and Ost, Workers after Workers' States.
131. In the Industrial relations literature, "that unemployment undermines union bargaining power is axiomatic." George Ross and Andrew Martin, "European Unions Face the Millennium," in Martin and Ross, eds., The Brave New World of European Labor (New York: Berghahn Books, 1999), 14. On the economic theory of strikes, see J. Kennan, "The Economics of Strikes," in Orley Ashtenfelter and Richard Layard, eds., Handbook of Labor Economics, vol. 2 (Amsterdam: Elsevier Science, 1986), 1091-137: David Soskice, "Strike Waves and Wage Explosions, 1968-1970: An Economic Interpretation," in Colin Crouch and Alessandro Pizzorno, eds., The Resurgence of Class Conflict in Western Europe since 1968 (New York: Holmes & Meier, 1978).
132. In the Industrial relations literature, "that unemployment undermines union bargaining power is axiomatic." George Ross and Andrew Martin, "European Unions Face the Millennium," in Martin and Ross, eds., The Brave New World of European Labor (New York: Berghahn Books, 1999), 14. On the economic theory of strikes, see J. Kennan, "The Economics of Strikes," in Orley Ashtenfelter and Richard Layard, eds., Handbook of Labor Economics, vol. 2 (Amsterdam: Elsevier Science, 1986), 1091-137: David Soskice, "Strike Waves and Wage Explosions, 1968-1970: An Economic Interpretation," in Colin Crouch and Alessandro Pizzorno, eds., The Resurgence of Class Conflict in Western Europe since 1968 (New York: Holmes & Meier, 1978).
133. In the Industrial relations literature, "that unemployment undermines union bargaining power is axiomatic." George Ross and Andrew Martin, "European Unions Face the Millennium," in Martin and Ross, eds., The Brave New World of European Labor (New York: Berghahn Books, 1999), 14. On the economic theory of strikes, see J. Kennan, "The Economics of Strikes," in Orley Ashtenfelter and Richard Layard, eds., Handbook of Labor Economics, vol. 2 (Amsterdam: Elsevier Science, 1986), 1091-137: David Soskice, "Strike Waves and Wage Explosions, 1968-1970: An Economic Interpretation," in Colin Crouch and Alessandro Pizzorno, eds., The Resurgence of Class Conflict in Western Europe since 1968 (New York: Holmes & Meier, 1978).
134. P. K. Edwards and Richard Hyman, "Strikes and Industrial Conflict: Peace in Europe?" in R. Hyman and A. Ferner, eds., New Frontiers in European Industrial Relations (Oxford, UK: Blackwell, 1994); Franzosi, Puzzle of Strikes.
135. P. K. Edwards and Richard Hyman, "Strikes and Industrial Conflict: Peace in Europe?" in R. Hyman and A. Ferner, eds., New Frontiers in European Industrial Relations (Oxford, UK: Blackwell, 1994); Franzosi, Puzzle of Strikes.
136. During the Great Depression, for example, both the United States and France witnessed considerable amounts of strikes and labor organizing. Sidney Tarrow, Power in Movement: Social Movements, Collective Action, and Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 84.
137. Franozosi finds that, with lag time and quarterly strike rates, unemployment can explain some, but by no means all, of variation in strike rates for Italy, but his study is confined to a single country. Franzosi, Puzzle of Strikes.
138. Commander and McHale find little consistent correlation between levels of unemployment and wages in transition countries, whether aggregate or regional data is used. Simon Commander and J. McHale, "Unemployment and the Labor Market in Transition: A Review of Experience in East Europe and Russia," in Bartolmiej Kaminiski, ed., Economic Transition in Russia and the new states of Eurasia (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1996), 301. More broadly, Ekiert and Kubik find little support for relative deprivation hypotheses in their comparisons of protest in the region. Ekiert and Kubik, Rebellious Civil Society.
139. Commander and McHale find little consistent correlation between levels of unemployment and wages in transition countries, whether aggregate or regional data is used. Simon Commander and J. McHale, "Unemployment and the Labor Market in Transition: A Review of Experience in East Europe and Russia," in Bartolmiej Kaminiski, ed., Economic Transition in Russia and the new states of Eurasia (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1996), 301. More broadly, Ekiert and Kubik find little support for relative deprivation hypotheses in their comparisons of protest in the region. Ekiert and Kubik, Rebellious Civil Society.
140. Albert Hirschman, Exit, Voice and Loyalty: Responses to Decline in Firms, Organizations, and States (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1970).
141. Greskovits, "Political Economy of Protest," 87, 17, 92; Likewise, Iankova argues that "strikes in Hungary have been insignificant because of the country's vast informal economy, which provides to important groups in the work force some compensation for losses." Iankova, Capitalism in the Making, 21. See also Joan Nelson, "Social Costs, Social-Sector Reforms, and Politics in Post-Communist Transformations," in J. Nelson, C. Tilly, and L. Walker, eds., Transforming Post-Communist Political Economies (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1997).
142. Greskovits, "Political Economy of Protest," 87, 17, 92; Likewise, Iankova argues that "strikes in Hungary have been insignificant because of the country's vast informal economy, which provides to important groups in the work force some compensation for losses." Iankova, Capitalism in the Making, 21. See also Joan Nelson, "Social Costs, Social-Sector Reforms, and Politics in Post-Communist Transformations," in J. Nelson, C. Tilly, and L. Walker, eds., Transforming Post-Communist Political Economies (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1997).
143. Greskovits, "Political Economy of Protest," 87, 17, 92; Likewise, Iankova argues that "strikes in Hungary have been insignificant because of the country's vast informal economy, which provides to important groups in the work force some compensation for losses." Iankova, Capitalism in the Making, 21. See also Joan Nelson, "Social Costs, Social-Sector Reforms, and Politics in Post-Communist Transformations," in J. Nelson, C. Tilly, and L. Walker, eds., Transforming Post-Communist Political Economies (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1997).
144. Tito Boeri and Randolph Bruno, "A Short Note on the Characteristics of Labor Turnover in Central and Eastern Europe," in Douglas Lippold, ed., Labor Dynamics in the Russian Federation (Paris: OECD, 1997).
145. Vladimir Gimpelson and Douglas Lippoldt, The Russian Labour Market: Between Transition and Turmoil (Lanham, MD: Rowrnan & Littlefield, 2001).
146. Boeri and Bruno, "Characteristics of Labour Turnover."
147. Simon Johnson, Daniel Kaufman, and Andrei Shleifer, "The Unofficial Economy in Transition," Brookings Papers on Economic Activity 2 (1997).
148. Iankova and Turner, "Building the New Europe"; Robertson, "The Madding Crowd."
149. Iankova and Turner, "Building the New Europe"; Robertson, "The Madding Crowd."
150. ILO World Labor Report, 2000. This data would support the argument by Greskovits that there are fewer urban poor in Eastern Europe, a group that in Latin America has often to led rioting or other contentious actions. Greskovits, Political Economy of Protest.
151. ILO World Labor Report, 2000. This data would support the argument by Greskovits that there are fewer urban poor in Eastern Europe, a group that in Latin America has often to led rioting or other contentious actions. Greskovits, Political Economy of Protest.
152. Valerie Bunce, "The Political Economy of Postsocialism," Slavic Review 58 (1999): 756-93.
153. Charles King, "Post-Postcommunism: Transition, Comparison, and the End of 'Eastern Europe,'" World Politics 53 (October 2000); Jacques Rupnik, "The Postcommunist Divide," Journal of Democracy 10 (January 1999): 57-62.
154. Charles King, "Post-Postcommunism: Transition, Comparison, and the End of 'Eastern Europe,'" World Politics 53 (October 2000); Jacques Rupnik, "The Postcommunist Divide," Journal of Democracy 10 (January 1999): 57-62.
155. United Nations Economic Commission for Europe, Economic Survey of Europe 2000 No. 2/3. (New York/Geneva: UN, 2000).
156. David Ost and Stephen Crowley, "Conclusion: Making Sense of Labor Weakness In Postcommunism," in Crowley and Ost, Workers after Workers' States.
157. Ross and Martin, "European Unions," 3.
158. Greskovits, Political Economy of Protest.
159. Poliert, Transformation at Work.
160. Poliert, "Labor and Trade Unions in the Czech Republic, 1989-2000," in Crowley and Ost, Workers after Workers' States, 23.
161. David Ost and Marc Weinstein, "Unions Against Unions? Towards Hierarchical Management in Post-Communist Poland, East European Politics and Societies 13:1(1999).
162. According to Commander and McHale, while "managers have generally acquired significant discretion in firm decisions" throughout the post-communist region, a "clear difference between Poland, on the one hand, and the Czech Republic and Hungary, on the other, was evident. In the former, workers or workers' collectives had a. clear voice in both the short- and long-term decisions of firms, something that was almost completely absent In the other two countries." Commander and McHale, "Unemployment," 30.
163. W. Mishler and Richard Rose, "Trust, Distrust and Skepticism: Popular Evaluations of Civil and Political Institutions in Post-Communist Societies," Journal of Politics 59:2(1997): 418-51.
164. Richard Rose, and C. Haerpfer, "New Democracies Barometer V: A12 Nation Survey," Studies in Public Policy 306 (Glasgow, UK: Centre for the Study of Public Policy, 1998).
165. Roderick Martin et al., Workers, Firms and Unions: Industrial Relations in Transition (Frankfurt, Germany: Peter Lang, 1998).
166. Ingelhart et al., World Values Survey. More precisely, as in the other surveys, the figures are the unweighted average of country means in each case. The surveys were taken in 1995 to 1997. The post-communist average does not include war-torn Bosnia, in which case the average would rise to 29.7 percent.
167. For an interesting and critical discussion of the notion of legacy, see Gregorz Ekiert and Stephen Hanson, Capitalism and Democracy in Central and Eastern Europe: Assessing the Legacy of Communist Rule (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003).
168. Much of this and the next paragraph draws from Ost and Crowley, "Conclusion."
169. Kubicek, "Organized Labor."
170. Similarly, Meardi finds that "on many issues (privatization, pensions systems, taxation, working time, the welfare state, wage differentials, and so on) post-communist countries are following a 'North American' road rather than that of the European social market economy." Guglielmo Meardi, "Trojan Horse for the Americanization of Europe? Polish Industrial Relations towards the EU," European Journal of Industrial Relations 8:1(March 2002): 77-99 at 79.
171. Meardi, Union Activists.
172. Ross and Martin, "European Unions," 2.
173. Greskovits, Political Economy of Protest; Stephen Levitsky and Lucan Way, "Between a Shock and a Hard Place: The Dynamics of Labor-Backed Adjustments In Poland and Argentina," Comparative Politics 30:2(1998); Heather Tafel and Dexter Boniface, "Old Carrots, New Sticks: Explaining Labor Strategies toward Economic Reform in Eastern Europe and Latin America," Comparative Politics 35:3(2003).
174. Greskovits, Political Economy of Protest; Stephen Levitsky and Lucan Way, "Between a Shock and a Hard Place: The Dynamics of Labor-Backed Adjustments In Poland and Argentina," Comparative Politics 30:2(1998); Heather Tafel and Dexter Boniface, "Old Carrots, New Sticks: Explaining Labor Strategies toward Economic Reform in Eastern Europe and Latin America," Comparative Politics 35:3(2003).
175. Greskovits, Political Economy of Protest; Stephen Levitsky and Lucan Way, "Between a Shock and a Hard Place: The Dynamics of Labor-Backed Adjustments In Poland and Argentina," Comparative Politics 30:2(1998); Heather Tafel and Dexter Boniface, "Old Carrots, New Sticks: Explaining Labor Strategies toward Economic Reform in Eastern Europe and Latin America," Comparative Politics 35:3(2003).
176. Meardi, "Trojan Horse." See also Daniel Vaughan-Whitehead, EU Enlargement versus Social Europe? The Uncertain Future of the European Social Model (Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar, 2003).
177. Meardi, "Trojan Horse." See also Daniel Vaughan-Whitehead, EU Enlargement versus Social Europe? The Uncertain Future of the European Social Model (Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar, 2003).