Prevention of infective endocarditis: Guidelines from the American Heart Association

Journal of the American Dental Association

Volumn 139, Issue 1 SUPPL., 2008, Pages

  Wilson, Walter ^a,z   Taubert, Kathryn A ^b,c   Gewitz, Michael ^d   Lockhart, Peter B ^e   Baddour, Larry M ^a   Levison, Matthew ^f   Bolger, Ann ^g   Cabell, Christopher H ^h   Takahashi, Masato ⁱ   Baltimore, Robert S ^j   Newburger, Jane W ^k,l   Strom, Brian L ^m   Tani, Lloyd Y ⁿ   Gerber, Michael ^o   Bonow, Robert O ^p,q   Pallasch, Thomas ⁱ   Shulman, Stanford T ^r,s   Rowley, Anne H ^s   Burns, Jane C ^t   Ferrieri, Patricia ^r,u   Gardner, Timothy ^v   Goff, David ^w   Durack, David T ^h,x,y   more..

^a MAYO CLINIC   (United States)

^b AMERICAN HEART ASSOCIATION   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS SOUTHWESTERN MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

^d NEW YORK MEDICAL COLLEGE   (United States)

^e CAROLINAS MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

^f DREXEL UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^g UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^h DUKE UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

ⁱ UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^j YALE UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^k HARVARD MEDICAL SCHOOL   (United States)

^l BOSTON CHILDREN S HOSPITAL   (United States)

^m UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA   (United States)

ⁿ UNIVERSITY OF UTAH SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^o Shriners Hosp Children Cincinnati   (United States)

^p Division of Cardiology

^q NORTHWESTERN MEMORIAL HOSPITAL   (United States)

^r Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology ^*

^s CHILDREN'S MEMORIAL HOSPITAL   (United States)

^t UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SAN DIEGO   (United States)

^u UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA MEDICAL SCHOOL   (United States)

^v CHRISTIANA CARE HEALTH SYSTEM   (United States)

^w WAKE FOREST SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^x BD Technologies   (United States)

^y Dickinson and Company

^z AMERICAN DENTAL ASSOCIATION   (United States)

more..

Author keywords

AHA scientific statements; Antibiotic prophylaxis; Cardiovascular disease; Endocarditis; Prevention

Indexed keywords

EID: 38949186736     PISSN: 00028177     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.14219/jada.archive.2008.0346     Document Type: Article

References (147)

1. Dajani AS, Taubert KA, Wilson W, et al. Prevention of bacterial endocarditis: recommendations by the American Heart Association. JAMA 1997;277(22):1794-801.
2. Strom BL, Abrutyn E, Berlin JA, et al. Dental and cardiac risk factors for infective endocarditis: a population-based, case-control study. Ann Intern Med 1998;129(10):761-9.
3. Durack DT. Prevention of infective endocarditis. N Engl J Med 1994(1);332:38-44.
4. Durack DT. Antibiotics for prevention of endocarditis during dentistry: time to scale back? Ann Intern Med 1998;129(10):829-31.
5. Lockhart PB, Brennan MT, Fox PC, Norton HJ, Jernigan DB, Strausbaugh LJ, Decision-making on the use of antimicrobial prophylaxis for dental procedures: a survey of infectious disease consultants and review. Clin Infect Dis 2002;34(12):1621-6.
6. American College of Cardiology and American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. Manual for ACC/AHA guideline writing committees: Methodologies and policies from the ACC/AHA Task Force on Practice Guidelines. Available at: "http://circ.ahajournals.org/manual/". Accessed May 2, 2007.
7. Jones TD, Baumgartner L, Bellows MT, et al. Prevention of rheumatic fever and bacterial endocarditis through control of streptococcal infections. Circulation 1955;11:317-20.
8. Rammelkamp CH, Breese BB, Griffeath HI, et al. (Committee on Prevention of Rheumatic Fever and Bacterial Endocarditis, American Heart Association). Treatment of streptococcal infections in the general population. Circulation 1957;15:154-8.
9. Committee on Prevention of Rheumatic Fever and Bacterial Endocarditis, American Heart Association, Prevention of rheumatic fever and bacterial endocarditis through control of streptococcal infections. Circulation 1960;21:151-5.
10. Wannamaker LW, Denny FW, Diehl, et al. (Committee on Prevention of Rheumatic Fever and Bacterial Endocarditis, American Heart Association). Prevention of bacterial endocarditis. Circulation 1965;31:953-4.
11. Rheumatic Fever Committee and the Committee on Congenital Cardiac Defects, American Heart Association. Prevention of bacterial endocarditis. Circulation 1972;46:S3-S6.
12. Kaplan EL, Anthony BF, Bisno A, et al. (Committee on Prevention of Rheumatic Fever and Bacterial Endocarditis, American Heart Association). Prevention of bacterial endocarditis. Circulation 1977;56(1):139A-143A.
13. Shulman ST, Amren DP, Bisno AL, et al. (Committee on Prevention of Rheumatic Fever and Bacterial Endocarditis, American Heart Association). Prevention of bacterial endocarditis: a statement for health professionals by the Committee on Rheumatic Fever and Infective Endocarditis of the Council on Cardiovascular Disease in the Young. Circulation 1984;70(6):1123A-1127A.
14. Dajani AS, Bisno AL, Chung KJ, et al. Prevention of bacterial endocarditis: recommendations by the American Heart Association. JAMA 1990;264(22):2919-22.
15. Selton-Suty C, Duval X, Brochet E, et al. New French recommendations for the prophylaxis of infectious endocarditis [in French]. Arch Mal Coeur Vaiss 2004;97(6):626-31.
16. Gould FK, Elliott TS, Foweraker J, et al. Guidelines for the prevention of endocarditis: report of the Working Party of the British Society for Antimicrobial Chemotherapy-authors' response. J Antimicrob Chemother 2006;57(4):1035-42.
17. Ashranfian H, Bogle RG. Antimicrobial prophylaxis for endocarditis: emotion or science. Heart 2007;93(1):5-6.
18. Burnette-Curley D, Wells V, Viscount H, et al. FimA, a major virulence factor associated with Streptococcus parasanguis endocarditis. Infect Immun 1995;63(12):4669-74.
19. Viscount HB, Munro CL, Burnette-Curley D, Peterson DL, Macrina FL. Immunization with FimA protects against Streptococcus parasanguis endocarditis in rats. Infect Immun 1997;65(3):994-1002.
20. Kitten T, Munro CL, Wang A, Macrina FL. Vaccination with FimA from Streptococcus parasanguis protects rats from endocarditis caused by other viridans streptococci. Infect Immun 2002;70(1):422-5.
21. Durack DT, Beeson PB. Experimental bacterial endocarditis, part II: survival of a bacteria in endocardial vegetations. Br J Exp Pathol 1972;53(1):50-3.
22. Fowler VG, Scheld WM, Bayer AS. Endocarditis and intravascular infections. In: Mandell GL, Douglas RG, Bennett JE, Dolin R, eds. Principles and practices of infectious diseases. 6th ed. New York: Elsevier/Churchill Livingstone; 2005:975-1021.
23. Osler W. Gulstonian lectures on malignant endocarditis: lecture I and lecture II. Lancet 1885;1:415-8, 459-64.
24. Okell CC, Elliott SD. Bacteraemia and oral sepsis: with special reference to the aetiology of subacute endocarditis. Lancet 1935;2: 869-72.
25. Lockhart PB, Durack DT. Oral microflora as a cause of endocarditis and other distant site infections. Infect Dis Clin North Am 1999;13(4):833-50, vi.
26. Roberts GJ, Holzel HS, Sury MR, Simmons NA, Gardner P, Longhurst P. Dental bacteremia in children, Pediatr Cardiol 1997;18(1):24-7.
27. Pallasch TJ, Slots J. Antibiotic prophylaxis and the medically compromised patient. Periodontol 2000 1996;10:107-38.
28. Lockhart PB. The risk for endocarditis in dental practice. Periodontol 2000 2000;23:127-35.
29. Cobe HM. Transitory bacteremia. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 1954;7(6):609-15.
30. Sconyers JR, Crawford JJ, Moriarty JD. Relationship of bacteremia to toothbrushing in patients with periodontitis, JADA 1973;87(3):616-22.
31. Forner L, Larsen T, Kilian M, Holmstrup P. Incidence of bacteremia after chewing, tooth brushing and scaling in individuals with periodontal inflammation. J Clin Periodontol 2006;33(6):401-7.
32. Rise E, Smith JF, Bell J. Reduction of bacteremia after oral manipulations. Arch Otolaryngol 1969;90(2):198-201.
33. Schlein RA, Kudlick EM, Reindorf CA, Gregory J, Royal GC. Toothbrushing and transient bacteremia in patients undergoing orthodontic treatment. Am J Orthod Dentofacial Orthop 1991;99(5):466-72.
34. Faden HS. Dental procedures and bacteremia (letter). Ann Intern Med 1974;81(2):274.
35. Round H, Kirkpatrick HJR, Hails CG. Further investigations on bacteriological infections of the mouth. Proc R Soc Med 1936;29:1552-6.
36. Felix JE, Rosen S, App GR. Detection of bacteremia after the use of an oral irrigation device in subjects with periodontitis. J Periodontol 1971;42(12):785-7.
37. O'Leary TJ, Shafer WG, Swenson HM, Nesler DC, Van Dorn PR. Possible penetration of crevicular tissue from oral hygiene procedures, part I: use of oral irrigating devices. J Periodontol 1970;41(3):158-62.
38. Socransky SS, Haffajee AD, Smith GL, Dzink JL. Difficulties encountered in the search for the etiologic agents of destructive periodontal diseases. J Clin Periodontol 1987;14(10):588-93.
39. Tanner A, Maiden MF, Paster BJ, Dewhirst FE. The impact of 16S ribosomal RNA-based phytogeny on the taxonomy of oral bacteria. Periodontol 2000 1994;5:26-51.
40. Paster BJ, Boches SK, Galvin JL, et al. Bacterial diversity in human subgingival plaque. J Bacteriol 2001;183(12):3770-83.
41. Aas JA, Paster BJ, Stokes LN, Olsen I, Dewhirst FE. Defining the normal bacterial flora of the oral cavity. J Clin Microbiol 2005;43(11):5721-32.
42. Pallasch TJ. Antibiotic prophylaxis: problems in paradise. Dent Clin North Am 2003;47(4):665-79.
43. Hillman JD, Socransky SS, Shivers M. The relationships between streptococcal species and periodontopathic bacteria in human dental plaque. Arch Oral Biol 1985;30(11-12):791-5.
44. Roberts GJ, Jaffray EC, Spratt DA, et al. Duration, prevalence and intensity of bacteraemia after dental extractions in children. Heart 2006;92(9):1274-7.
45. Lucas VS, Lytra V, Hassan T, Tatham H, Wilson M, Roberts GJ. Comparison of lysis filtration and an automated blood culture system (BACTEC) for detection, quantification, and identification of odontogenic bacteremia in children. J Clin Microbiol 2002;40(9):3416-20.
46. Lockhart PB, Schmidtke MA. Antibiotic considerations in medically compromised patients. Dent Clin North Am 1994;38(3):381-402.
47. Overholser CD, Moreillon P, Glauser MP. Experimental endocarditis following dental extractions in rats with periodontitis (published correction appears in J Oral Maxillofac Surg 1989;47[2]:215). J Oral Maxillofac Surg 1988;46(10):857-61.
48. Baltch AL, Scharfer C, Hammer MC, et al. Bacteremia following dental cleaning in patients with and without penicillin prophylaxis. Am Heart J 1982;104(6):1335-9.
49. Baltch AL, Pressman HL, Schaffer C, et al. Bacteremia in patients undergoing oral procedures. Study following parenteral antimicrobial prophylaxis as recommended by the American Heart Association, 1977. Arch Intern Med 1988;148(5):1084-8.
50. Coffin F, Thompson RE. Factors influencing bacteraemia following dental extraction. Lancet 1956;271(6944):654-6.
51. Heimdahl A, Hall G, Hedberg M, et al. Detection and quantitation by lysis-filtration of bacteremia after different oral surgical procedures. J Clin Microbiol 1990;28(10):2205-9.
52. Lucartorto FM, Franker CK, Maza J. Postscaling bacteremia in HIV-associated gingivitis and periodontitis. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 1992;73(5):550-4.
53. Lockhart PB. An analysis of bacteremias during dental extractions: a double-blind, placebo-controlled study of Chlorhexidine. Arch Intern Med 1996;156(5):513-20.
54. Lockhart PB, Brennan MT, Kent ML, Norton HJ, Weinrib DA. Impact of amoxicillin prophylaxis on the incidence, nature, and duration of bacteremia in children after intubation and dental procedures. Circulation 2004;109(23):2878-84.
55. Lazansky JP, Robinson L, Rodofaky L. Factors influencing the incidence of bacteremias following surgical procedures in the oral cavity. J Dent Res 1949;28(6):533-43.
56. Bender IB, Montgomery S. Nonsurgical endodontic procedures for the patient at risk for infective endocarditis and other systemic disorders. J Endod 1986;12(9):400-7.
57. Conner HD, Haberman S, Collings CK, Winford TE. Bacteremias following periodontal scaling in patients with healthy appearing gingiva. J Periodontol 1967;38(6):466-72.
58. McEntegart MD, Porterfield JS. Bacteraemia following dental extractions. Lancet 1949;2:596-8.
59. Robinson L, Kraus FW, Lazansky JP, Wheeler RE, Gordon S, Johnson V. Bacteremias of dental origin, II: a study of the factors influencing occurrence and detection. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 1950;3:923-36.
60. Eldirini AH. Effectiveness of epinephrine in local anesthetic solutions on the bacteremia following dental extraction. J Oral Ther Pharmacol 1968;4(4):317-26.
61. Elliott RH, Dunbar JM. Streptococcal bacteraemia in children following dental extractions. Arch Dis Child 1968;43(230):451-4.
62. Vargas B, Collings CK, Polter L, Haberman S. Effects of certain factors on bacteremias resulting from gingival resection. J Periodontol 1959;30:196-207.
63. Roberts GJ. Dentists are innocent! "Everyday" bacteremia is the real culprit: a review and assessment of the evidence that dental surgical procedures are a principal cause of bacterial endocarditis in children. Pediatr Cardiol 1999;20(5):317-25.
64. Hockett RN, Loesche WJ, Sodeman TM. Bacteraemia in asymptomatic human subjects. Arch Oral Biol 1977;22(2):91-8.
65. Thayer W. Studies on bacterial (infective) endocarditis. Hopkins Hospital Report 1926;22:1-185.
66. Okabe K, Nakagawa K, Yamamoto E. Factors affecting the occurrence of bacteremia associated with tooth extraction. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg 1995;24(3):239-42.
67. Hall G, Hedstrom SA, Heimdahl A, Nord CE. Prophylactic administration of penicillins for endocarditis does not reduce the incidence of postextraction bacteremia. Clin Infect Dis 1993;17(2):188-94.
68. Lineberger LT, De Marco TJ. Evaluation of transient bacteremia following routine periodontal procedures. J Periodontol 1973;44(12):757-62.
69. Witzenberger T, O'Leary TJ, Gillette WB. Effect of a local germicide on the occurrence of bacteremia during subgingival scaling. J Periodontol 1982;53(3):172-9.
70. Rogosa M, Hampp EG, Nevin TA, Wagner HN Jr, Driscoll EJ, Baer PN. Blood sampling and cultural studies in the detection of postoperative bacteremias. JADA 1960;60:171-80.
71. Bandt CL, Korn NA, Schaffer EM. Bacteremias from ultrasonic and hand instrumentation. J Periodontol 1964;35:214-5.
72. De Leo AA, Schoenknecht FD, Anderson MW, Peterson JC. The incidence of bacteremia following oral prophylaxis on pediatric patients. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 1974;37(1):36-45.
73. Barco CT. Prevention of infective endocarditis: a review of the medical and dental literature. J Periodontol 1991;62(8):510-23.
74. Bayliss R, Clarke C, Oakley C, Somerville W, Whitfield AG. The teeth and infective endocarditis. Br Heart J 1983;50(6):506-12.
75. Hirsh HL, Vivino JJ, Merril A, Dowling HF. Effect of prophylactically administered penicillin on incidence of bacteremia following extraction of teeth. Arch Intern Med 1948;81:868-78.
76. Shanson DC, Akash S, Harris M, Tadayon M. Erythromycin stearate, 1.5 g, for the oral prophylaxis of streptococcal bacteraemia in patients undergoing dental extraction: efficacy and tolerance. J Antimicrob Chemother 1985;15(1):83-90.
77. Roberts GJ, Radford P, Holt R. Prophylaxis of dental bacteraemia with oral amoxycillin in children. Br Dent J 1987;162(5):179-82.
78. Hall G, Heimdahl A, Nord CE. Effects of prophylactic administration of cefaclor on transient bacteremia after dental extraction. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 1995;15:646-9.
79. Hall G, Heimdahl A, Nord CE. Bacteremia after oral surgery and antibiotic prophylaxis for endocarditis. Clin Infect Dis 1999;29(1);1-8.
80. Macfarlane TW, Ferguson MM, Mulgrew CJ. Post-extraction bacteraemia: role of antiseptics and antibiotics. Br Dent J 1984;156(5):179-81.
81. Oliver R, Roberts GJ, Hooper L. Penicillins for the prophylaxis of bacterial endocarditis in dentistry. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2004(2):CD003813.
82. Guntheroth WG. How important are dental procedures as a cause of infective endocarditis? Am J Cardiol 1984;54(7):797-801.
83. Everett ED, Hirschmann JV. Transient bacteremia and endocarditis prophylaxis: a review. Medicine (Baltimore). 1977;56(1):61-77.
84. Horstkotte D, Rosin H, Friedrichs W, Loogen F. Contribution for choosing the optimal prophylaxis of bacterial endocarditis. Eur Heart J 1987;8(supplement J):379-81.
85. Imperiale TF, Horwitz RI. Does prophylaxis prevent postdental infective endocarditis? A controlled evaluation of protective efficacy. Am J Med 1990;88(2):131-6.
86. van der Meer JT, Thompson J, Valkenburg HA, Michel MF. Epidemiology of bacterial endocarditis in The Netherlands, part II: antecedent procedures and use of prophylaxis. Arch Intern Med 1992;152(9):1869-73.
87. van der Meer JT, van Wijk W, Thompson J, Vandenbroucke JP, Valkenburg HA, Michel MF. Efficacy of antibiotic prophylaxis for prevention of native-valve endocarditis. Lancet 1992;339(8786):135-9.
88. van der Meer JT, van Wijk W, Thompson J, Valkenburg HA, Michel MF. Awareness of need and actual use of prophylaxis: lack of patient compliance in the prevention of bacterial endocarditis. J Antimicrob Chemother 1992;29(2):187-94.
89. Duval X, Alia F, Hoen B, et al. Estimated risk of endocarditis in adults with predisposing cardiac conditions undergoing dental procedures with or without antibiotic prophylaxis. Clin Infect Dis 2006;42(12):e102-7.
90. Starkebaum M, Durack D, Beeson P. The "incubation period" of subacute bacterial endocarditis. Yale J Biol Med 1977;50(1):49-58.
91. Steckelberg JM, Wilson WR. Risk factors for infective endocarditis. Infect Dis Clin North Am 1993;7(1):9-19.
92. Pallasch TJ, Wahl MJ. Focal infection: new age or ancient history? Endodontic Topics 2003;4:32-45.
93. Idsoe O, Guthe T, Willcox RR, de Weck AL. Nature and extent of penicillin side-reactions, with particular reference to fatalities from anaphylactic shock. Bull World Health Organ 1968;38(2):159-88.
94. Ahlstedt S. Penicillin allergy: can the incidence be reduced? Allergy 1984;39(3):151-64.
95. Agha Z, Lofgren RP, Van Ruiswyk JV. Is antibiotic prophylaxis for bacterial endocarditis cost-effective? Med Decis Making 2005;25(3): 308-20.
96. Kelkar PS, Li JT. Cephalosporin allergy. N Engl J Med 2001;345(11):804-9.
97. Guay DR, Patterson DR, Seipman N, Craft JC. Overview of the tolerability profile of clarithromycin in preclinical and clinical trials. Drug Saf 1993;8(5):350-64.
98. Mazur N, Greenberger PA, Regalado J. Clindamycin hypersensitivity appears to be rare. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 1999;82(5): 443-5.
99. Bombassaro AM, Wetmore SJ, John MA. Clostridium difficile colitis following antibiotic prophylaxis for dental procedures. J Can Dent Assoc 2001;67(1):20-2.
100. Tleyjeh IM, Steckelberg JM, Murad HS, et al. Temporal trends in infective endocarditis: a population-based study in Olmsted County, Minnesota. JAMA 2005;293(24):3022-8.
101. Griffin MR, Wilson WR, Edwards WD, O'Fallon WM, Kurland LT. Infective endocarditis. Olmsted County, Minnesota, 1950 through 1981. JAMA 1985;254(9):1199-202.
102. Durack DT, Petersdorf RG. Changes in the epidemiology of endocarditis. Dallas: American Heart Association; 1977, AHA Monograph No. 52.
103. Delahaye F, Goulet V, Lacassin F, et al. Characteristics of infective endocarditis in France in 1991: a 1-year survey. Eur Heart J 1995;16(3):394-401.
104. Hoen B, Alla F, Selton-Suty C, et al. Changing profile of infective endocarditis: results of a 1-year survey in France. JAMA 2002;288(1):75-81.
105. Mylonakis E, Calderwood SB. Infective endocarditis in adults. N Engl J Med 2001;345(18):1318-30.
106. Gersony WM, Hayes CJ, Driscoll DJ, et al. Bacterial endocarditis in patients with aortic stenosis, pulmonary stenosis, or ventricular septal defect. Circulation 1993;87(2 supplement):1121-6.
107. Wilson WR, Jaumin PM, Danielson GK, Giuliani ER, Washington JAII, Geraci JE. Prosthetic valve endocarditis. Ann Intern Med 1975;82(6):751-6.
108. Baddour LM, Wilson WR. Infections of prosthetic valves and other cardiovascular devices. In: Mandell GL, Douglas RG, Bennett JE, Dolin R, eds. Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett's principles and practice of infectious diseases, 6th ed. New York: Elsevier/Churchill Living-stone; 2005:1022-44.
109. Baddour LM, Wilson WR, Bayer AS, et al. Infective endocarditis: diagnosis, antimicrobial therapy, and management of complications: a statement for healthcare professionals from the Committee on Rheumatic Fever, Endocarditis, and Kawasaki Disease, Council on Cardiovascular Disease in the Young, and the Councils on Clinical Cardiology, Stroke, and Cardiovascular Surgery and Anesthesia, American Heart Association: endorsed by the Infectious Diseases Society of America (published corrections appear in Circulation 2005;112[15]:2373 and Circulation 2007;115[15]:e408). Circulation 2005;111(23):e394-434.
110. Wilson WR, Danielson GK, Giuliani ER, Geraci JE. Prosthetic valve endocarditis. Mayo Clin Proc 1982;57(3):155-61.
111. Wilson WR, Geraci JE, Wilkowske CJ, Washington JA 2nd. Short-term intramuscular therapy with procaine penicillin plus streptomycin for infective endocarditis due to viridans streptococci. Circulation 1978;57(6):1158-61.
112. Anderson DJ, Olaison L, McDonald JR, et al. Enterococcal prosthetic valve infective endocarditis: report of 45 episodes from the International Collaboration on Endocarditis-merged database. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2005;24(10):665-70.
113. Chu VH, Cabell CH, Abrutyn E, et al. Native valve endocarditis due to coagulase-negative staphylococci: report of 99 episodes from the International Collaboration on Endocarditis Merged Database. Clin Infect Dis 2004;39(10):1527-30.
114. Lalani T, Kanafani ZA, Chu VH, et al. Prosthetic valve endocarditis due to coagulase-negative staphylococci: findings from the International Collaboration on Endocarditis Merged Database. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2006;25(6):365-8.
115. McDonald JR, Olaison L, Anderson DJ, et al. Enterococcal endocarditis: 107 cases from the international collaboration on endocarditis merged database. Am J Med 2005;118(7):759-66.
116. Sexton DJ, Tenenbaum MJ, Wilson WR, et al. Ceftriaxone once daily for four weeks compared with ceftriaxone plus gentamicin once daily for two weeks for treatment of endocarditis due to penicillin-susceptible streptococci. Endocarditis Treatment Consortium Group. Clin Infect Dis 1998;27(6):1470-4.
117. Francioli P, Etienne J, Hoigne R, Thys JP, Gerber A. Treatment of streptococcal endocarditis with a single daily dose of ceftriaxone sodium for 4 weeks: efficacy and outpatient treatment feasibility, JAMA 1992;267(2):264-7.
118. Wilson WR, Wilkowske CJ, Wright AJ, Sande MA, Geraci JE. Treatment of streptomycin-susceptible and streptomycin-resistant enterococcal endocarditis. Ann Intern Med 1984;100(6):816-23.
119. Mansur AJ, Dal Bo CM, Fukushima JT, Issa VS, Grinberg M, Pomerantzeff PM. Relapses, recurrences, valve replacements, and mortality during the long-term follow-up after infective endocarditis. Am Heart J 2001;141(1):78-86.
120. Baddour LM. Twelve-year review of recurrent native-valve infective endocarditis: a disease of the modern antibiotic era. Rev Infect Dis 1988;10(6):1163-70.
121. Chu VH, Sexton DJ, Cabell CH, et al. Repeat infective endocarditis: differentiating relapse from reinfection. Clin Infect Dis 2005;41(3):406-9.
122. Welton DE, Young JB, Gentry WO, et al. Recurrent infective endocarditis: analysis of predisposing factors and clinical features. Am J Med 1979;66(6):932-8.
123. Levison ME, Kaye D, Mandell GL, Hook EW. Characteristics of patients with multiple episodes of bacterial endocarditis. JAMA 1970;211(8):1355-7.
124. Renzulli A, Carozza A, Romano G, et al. Recurrent infective endocarditis: a multivariate analysis of 21 years of experience. Ann Thorac Surg 2001;72(1):39-43.
125. Erbel R, Liu F, Ge J, Kupferwasser I. Identification of high-risk subgroups in infective endocarditis and the role of echocardiography. Eur Heart J 1995;16(5):588-602.
126. Kaplan EL, Rich H, Gersony W, Manning J. A collaborative study of infective endocarditis in the 1970s: emphasis on infections in patients who have undergone cardiovascular surgery. Circulation 1979;59(2):327-35.
127. Coward K, Tucker N, Darville T. Infective endocarditis in Arkansan children from 1990 through 2002. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2003;22(12):1048-52.
128. Saiman L, Prince A, Gersony WM. Pediatric infective endocarditis in the modern era. J Pediatr 1993;122(6):847-53.
129. Dodo H, Child JS. Infective endocarditis in congenital heart disease. Cardiol Clin 1996;14(3):383-92.
130. Martin JM, Neches WH, Wald ER. Infective endocarditis: 35 years of experience at a children's hospital. Clin Infect Dis 1997;24(4):669-75.
131. Parras F, Bouza E, Romero J, et al. Infectious endocarditis in children. Pediatr Cardiol 1990;11(2):77-81.
132. Takeda S, Nakanishi T, Nakazawa M. A 28-year trend of infective endocarditis associated with congenital heart diseases: a single institute experience. Pediatr Int 2005;47(4):392-6.
133. Ferrieri P, Gewitz MH, Gerber MA, et al. Unique features of infective endocarditis in childhood. Circulation 2002;105(17):2115-26.
134. Ishiwada N, Niwa K, Tateno S, et al. Causative organism influences clinical profile and outcome of infective endocarditis in pediatric patients and adults with congenital heart disease. Circ J 2005;69(10):1266-70.
135. Han YM, Gu X, Titus JL, et al. New self-expanding patent foramen ovale occlusion device. Catheter Cardiovasc Interv 1999;47(3):370-6.
136. Prabhu RM, Piper KE, Baddour LM, Steckelberg JM, Wilson WR, Patel R. Antimicrobial susceptibility patterns among viridans group streptococcal isolates from infective endocarditis patients from 1971 to 1986 and 1994 to 2002. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2004;48(11):4463-5.
137. Doern GV, Ferraro MJ, Brueggemann AB, Ruoff KL. Emergence of high rates of antimicrobial resistance among viridans group streptococci in the United States. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1996;40(4):891-4.
138. Diekema DJ, Beach ML, Pfaller MA, Jones RN; SENTRY Participants Group. Antimicrobial resistance in viridans group streptococci among patients with and without the diagnosis of cancer in the USA, Canada and Latin America. Clin Microbiol Infect 2001;7(3):152-7.
139. Groppo FC, Castro FM, Pacheco AB, et al. Antimicrobial resistance of Staphylococcus aureus and oral streptococci strains from high-risk endocarditis patients. Gen Dent 2005;53(6):410-3.
140. Teng LJ, Hsueh PR, Chen YC, Ho SW, Luh KT. Antimicrobial susceptibility of viridans group streptococci in Taiwan with an emphasis on the high rates of resistance to penicillin and macrolides in Streptococcus oralis. J Antimicrob Chemother 1998;41(6):621-7.
141. Tuohy M, Washington JA, Antimicrobial susceptibility of viridans group streptococci. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 1997;29(4):277-80.
142. Seppala H, Haanpera M, Al-Juhaish M, Jarvinen H, Jalava J, Huovinen P. Antimicrobial susceptibility patterns and macrolide resistance genes of viridans group streptococci from normal flora. J Antimicrob Chemother 2003;52(4):636-44.
143. Marron A, Carratala J, Alcaide F, Fernandez-Sevilla A, Gudiol F. High rates of resistance to cephalosporins among viridans-group streptococci causing bacteraemia in neutropenic cancer patients. J Antimicrob Chemother 2001;47(1):87-91.
144. Wu JJ, Lin KY, Hsueh PR, Liu JW, Pan HI, Sheu SM. High incidence of erythromycin-resistant streptococci in Taiwan. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1997;41(4):844-6.
145. King A, Bathgate T, Phillips I. Erythromycin susceptibility of viridans streptococci from the normal throat flora of patients treated with azithromycin or clarithromycin. Clin Microbiol Infect 2002;8(2): 85-92.
146. Baddour LM, Bettmann MA, Bolger AF, et al. Nonvalvular cardiovascular device-related infections. Circulation 2003;108(16):2015-31.
147. Sherman-Weber S, Axelrod P, Suh B, et al. Infective endocarditis following orthotopic heart transplantation: 10 cases and a review of the literature, Transpl Infect Dis 2004;6(4):165-70.