Driving under the influence of cannabis: A 10-year study of age and gender differences in the concentrations of tetrahydrocannabinol in blood

Addiction

Volumn 103, Issue 3, 2008, Pages 452-461

  Jones, Alan W ^a,b   Holmgren, Anita ^a   Kugelberg, Fredrik C ^a  

^a DEPARTMENT OF FORENSIC GENETICS AND FORENSIC TOXICOLOGY   (Sweden)

^b Department of Forensic Genetics and Forensic Toxicology   (Sweden)

Author keywords

Blood; Cannabis; Drugs; DUID; Road traffic accident; Tetrahydrocannabinol; THC

Indexed keywords

CANNABIS; DEUTERIUM; DRONABINOL; PSYCHOTROPIC AGENT;

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; AGE DISTRIBUTION; AGED; ARTICLE; BLOOD ANALYSIS; BLOOD CHEMISTRY; BLOOD SAMPLING; CHEMICAL LABELING; CONTROLLED STUDY; DATA BASE; DRIVING ABILITY; DRUG BLOOD LEVEL; ENZYME LINKED IMMUNOSORBENT ASSAY; FEMALE; FREQUENCY ANALYSIS; HUMAN; MAJOR CLINICAL STUDY; MALE; MASS FRAGMENTOGRAPHY; SEX DIFFERENCE; SUBSTANCE ABUSE; TRAFFIC ACCIDENT;

ACCIDENTS, TRAFFIC; ADOLESCENT; ADULT; AGE FACTORS; AUTOMOBILE DRIVING; FEMALE; HUMANS; MALE; MARIJUANA SMOKING; MIDDLE AGED; SEX FACTORS; SUBSTANCE ABUSE DETECTION; SWEDEN; TETRAHYDROCANNABINOL;

EID: 38849203667     PISSN: 09652140     EISSN: 13600443     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2007.02091.x     Document Type: Article

References (57)

1. Kalant H. Adverse effects of cannabis on health: an update of the literature since 1996. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2004 28 : 849 63.
2. Iversen L. L. The Science of Marijuana. London : Oxford University Press 2000, p. 1 283.
3. Gonzalez-Wilhelm L. Prevalence of alcohol and illicit drugs in blood specimens from drivers involved in traffic law offenses. Systematic review of cross-sectional studies. Traffic Inj Prev 2007 8 : 189 98.
4. Logan B. K. Marijuana and driving impairment. In : Elsohly M. A., editor. Marijuana and the Cannabinoids. Totowa : Humana Press 2006, p. 277 93.
5. Goldstein A., Kalant H. Drug policy: striking the right balance. Science 1990 249 : 1513 21.
6. Strang J., Witton J., Hall W. Improving the quality of the cannabis debate: defining the different domains. BMJ 2000 320 : 108 10.
7. Annas G. J. Reefer madness - the federal response to California's medical-marijuana law. N Engl J Med 1997 337 : 435 9.
8. Ben Amar M. Cannabinoids in medicine: a review of their therapeutic potential. J Ethnopharmacol 2006 105 : 1 25.
9. Grotenhermen F. Cannabinoids. Curr Drug Targets CNS Neurol Disord 2005 4 : 507 30.
10. Huestis M. A., Henningfield J. E., Cone E. J. Blood cannabinoids. I. Absorption of THC and formation of 11-OH-THC and THCCOOH during and after smoking marijuana. J Anal Toxicol 1992 16 : 276 82.
11. Huestis M. A., Sampson A. H., Holicky B. J., Henningfield J. E., Cone E. J. Characterization of the absorption phase of marijuana smoking. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1992 52 : 31 41.
12. Grotenhermen F. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of cannabinoids. Clin Pharmacokinet 2003 42 : 327 60.
13. Huestis M. A. Cannabis (marijuana) - effects on human performance and behavior. Forensic Sci Rev 2002 14 : 15 60.
14. Goodwin R. S., Gustafson R. A., Barnes A., Nebro W., Moolchan E. T., Huestis M. A. Delta(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol, 11-hydroxy-delta(9)- tetrahydrocannabinol and 11-nor-9-carboxy-delta(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol in human plasma after controlled oral administration of cannabinoids. Ther Drug Monit 2006 28 : 545 51.
15. Cone E. J., Huestis M. A. Relating blood concentrations of tetrahydrocannabinol and metabolites to pharmacologic effects and time of marijuana usage. Ther Drug Monit 1993 15 : 527 32.
16. Augsburger M., Donze N., Menetrey A., Brossard C., Sporkert F., Giroud C. et al. Concentration of drugs in blood of suspected impaired drivers. Forensic Sci Int 2005 153 : 11 15.
17. Jones A. W. Driving under the influence of drugs in Sweden with zero concentration limits in blood for controlled substances. Traffic Inj Prev 2005 6 : 317 22.
18. Walsh J. M., de Gier J. J., Christopherson A. S., Verstraete A. G. Drugs and driving. Traffic Inj Prev 2004 5 : 241 53.
19. Giroud C., Menetrey A., Augsburger M., Buclin T., Sanchez-Mazas P., Mangin P. Delta(9)-THC, 11-OH-delta(9)-THC and delta(9)-THCCOOH plasma or serum to whole blood concentrations distribution ratios in blood samples taken from living and dead people. Forensic Sci Int 2001 123 : 159 64.
20. Mura P., Chatelain C., Dumestre V., Gaulier J. M., Ghysel M. H., Lacroix C. et al. Use of drugs of abuse in less than 30-year-old drivers killed in a road crash in France: a spectacular increase for cannabis, cocaine and amphetamines. Forensic Sci Int 2006 160 : 168 72.
21. Grotenhermen F., Leson G., Berghaus G., Drummer O. H., Gruger H., Longo M. et al. Developing science-based per se limits for driving under the influence of cannabis (DUIC). 2005. Available at: http://www.canorml.org/healthfacts/ DUICreport.2005.pdf (accessed October 2007).
22. Grotenhermen F., Leson G., Berghaus G., Drummer O. H., Kruger H. P., Longo M. et al. Developing limits for driving under cannabis. Addiction 2007 102 : 1910 17.
23. Wadsworth E. J., Moss S. C., Simpson S. A., Smith A. P. Cannabis use, cognitive performance and mood in a sample of workers. J Psychopharmacol 2006 20 : 14 23.
24. Wright A., Terry P. Modulation of the effects of alcohol on driving-related psychomotor skills by chronic exposure to cannabis. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2002 160 : 213 19.
25. Kurzthaler I., Hummer M., Miller C., Sperner-Unterweger B., Gunther V., Wechdorn H. et al. Effect of cannabis use on cognitive functions and driving ability. J Clin Psychiatry 1999 60 : 395 9.
26. Papafotiou K., Carter J. D., Stough C. The relationship between performance on the standardised field sobriety tests, driving performance and the level of delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) in blood. Forensic Sci Int 2005 155 : 172 8.
27. Ramaekers J. G., Berghaus G., van Laar M., Drummer O. H. Dose related risk of motor vehicle crashes after cannabis use. Drug Alcohol Depend 2004 73 : 109 19.
28. Ramaekers J. G., Robbe H. W., O'Hanlon J. F. Marijuana, alcohol and actual driving performance. Hum Psychopharmacol 2000 15 : 551 8.
29. Robbe H. W. J. Influence of Marijuana on Driving. Maastricht : University of Limburg 1994.
30. Kronstrand R., Jones A. W. Drugs of abuse - analysis. In : Siegel J., Saukko P., Knupfer G., editors. Encyclopedia of Forensic Sciences, vol. 2. London : Academic Press 2000, p. 598 610.
31. Skopp G., Richter B., Potsch L. Cannabinoidbefunde im Serum 24 bis 48 Stunden nach Rauchkonsum [Serum cannabinoid levels 24 to 48 hours after cannabis smoking]. Arch Kriminol 2003 212 : 83 95.
32. Khiabani H. Z., Bramness J. G., Bjorneboe A., Morland J. Relationship between THC concentration in blood and impairment in apprehended drivers. Traffic Inj Prev 2006 7 : 111 16.
33. Chesher G. B., Bird K. D., Jackson D. M., Perrignon A., Starmer G. A. The effects of orally administered delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol in man on mood and performance measures: a dose-response study. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 1990 35 : 861 4.
34. Ramaekers J. G., Kauert G., van Ruitenbeek P., Theunissen E. L., Schneider E., Moeller M. R. High-potency marijuana impairs executive function and inhibitory motor control. Neuropsychopharmacology 2006 31 : 2296 303.
35. Ramaekers J. G., Moeller M. R., van Ruitenbeek P., Theunissen E. L., Schneider E., Kauert G. Cognition and motor control as a function of delta9-THC concentration in serum and oral fluid: limits of impairment. Drug Alcohol Depend 2006 85 : 114 22.
36. Huestis M. A., Cone E. J. Differentiating new marijuana use from residual drug excretion in occasional marijuana users. J Anal Toxicol 1998 22 : 445 54.
37. Huestis M. A., Elsohly M., Nebro W., Barnes A., Gustafson R. A., Smith M. L. Estimating time of last oral ingestion of cannabis from plasma THC and THCCOOH concentrations. Ther Drug Monit 2006 28 : 540 4.
38. Robbe H. W., O'Hanlon J. F. Marijuana, Alcohol and Actual Driving Performance. DOT HS 808. Washington, DC : US Department of Transportation, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration 1999, p. 1 43.
39. Iversen L. Long-term effects of exposure to cannabis. Curr Opin Pharmacol 2005 5 : 69 72.
40. Iversen L. Cannabis and the brain. Brain 2003 126 : 1252 70.
41. Brookoff D., Cook C. S., Williams C., Mann C. S. Testing reckless drivers for cocaine and marijuana. N Engl J Med 1994 331 : 518 22.
42. Schwilke E. W., Sampaio dos Santos M. I., Logan B. K. Changing patterns of drug and alcohol use in fatally injured drivers in Washington State. J Forensic Sci 2006 51 : 1191 8.
43. Appenzeller B. M., Schneider S., Yegles M., Maul A., Wennig R. Drugs and chronic alcohol abuse in drivers. Forensic Sci Int 2005 155 : 83 90.
44. Robertson M. D., Drummer O. H. Responsibility analysis: a methodology to study the effects of drugs in driving. Accid Anal Prev 1994 26 : 243 7.
45. Longo M. C., Hunter C. E., Lokan R. J., White J. M., White M. A. The prevalence of alcohol, cannabinoids, benzodiazepines and stimulants amongst injured drivers and their role in driver culpability. Part II: the relationship between drug prevalence and drug concentration, and driver culpability. Accid Anal Prev 2000 32 : 623 32.
46. Drummer O. H., Gerostamoulos J., Batziris H., Chu M., Caplehorn J., Robertson M. D. et al. The involvement of drugs in drivers of motor vehicles killed in Australian road traffic crashes. Accid Anal Prev 2004 36 : 239 48.
47. Drummer O. H., Gerostamoulos J., Batziris H., Chu M., Caplehorn J. R., Robertson M. D. et al. The incidence of drugs in drivers killed in Australian road traffic crashes. Forensic Sci Int 2003 134 : 154 62.
48. Busuttil A., Obafunwa J. O., Bulgin S. Passive inhalation of cannabis smoke: a novel defence strategy? J Clin Forensic Med 1996 3 : 99 104.
49. Hayden J. W. Passive inhalation of marijuana smoke: a critical review. J Subst Abuse 1991 3 : 85 90.
50. Cone E. J., Johnson R. E., Darwin W. D., Yousefnejad D., Mell L. D., Paul B. D. et al. Passive inhalation of marijuana smoke: urinalysis and room air levels of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol. J Anal Toxicol 1987 11 : 89 96.
51. Perez-Reyes M., Di Guiseppi S., Mason A. P., Davis K. H. Passive inhalation of marihuana smoke and urinary excretion of cannabinoids. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1983 34 : 36 41.
52. Morland J., Bugge A., Skuterud B., Steen A., Wethe G. H., Kjeldsen T. Cannabinoids in blood and urine after passive inhalation of cannabis smoke. J Forensic Sci 1985 30 : 997 1002.
53. Verstraete A. G. Detection times of drugs of abuse in blood, urine, and oral fluid. Ther Drug Monit 2004 26 : 200 5.
54. Looby A., Earleywine M. Negative consequences associated with dependence in daily cannabis users. Subst Abuse Treat Prev Policy 2007 2 : 3.
55. Compton W. M., Grant B. F., Colliver J. D., Glantz M. D., Stinson F. S. Prevalence of marijuana use disorders in the United States: 1991-1992 and 2001-2002. JAMA 2004 291 : 2114 21.
56. Holmgren A., Holmgren P., Kugelberg F. C., Jones A. W., Ahlner J. Predominance of illicit drugs and polydrug use among drug-impaired drivers in Sweden. Traffic Inj Prev 2007 8 : 339 45.
57. Holmgren A., Holmgren P., Kugelberg F. C., Jones A. W., Ahlner J. High re-arrest rates among drug-impaired drivers despite zero-tolerance legislation. Accid Anal Prev 2007. E-pub before print. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10. 1016/j.aap.2007.08.009 (accessed 21 December 2007).