The closure history of the Central American seaway: Evidence from isotopes and fossils to models and molecules

Geological Society Special Publication

Volumn , Issue , 2007, Pages 427-442

  Schmidt, D N ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF BRISTOL   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

GLACIATION; PALEOBIOGEOGRAPHY; PALEOCEANOGRAPHY; PALEOCLIMATE; PLIOCENE;

EID: 38349111382     PISSN: 03058719     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1144/tms002.19     Document Type: Article

References (113)

1. ANSELMETTI, F. S., EBERLI, G. P. & DING, Z.-D. 2000. From the Great Bahama Bank into the Straits of Florida: A margin architecture controlled by sea-level fluctuations and ocean currents. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 112, 829-844.
2. AVISE, J. C., NELSON, W. S., BOWEN, B. W. & WALKER, D. 2000. Phylogeography of colonially nesting seabirds, with special reference to global matrilineal patterns in the sooty tern (Sterna fuscata). Molecular Ecology, 9, 1783-1792.
3. BERGER, W. H. & WEFER, G. 1996. Expeditions into the Past: Paleoceanographic studies in the South Atlantic. In: WEFER, G., BERGER, W. H., SIEDLER, G. & WEBB, D. J. (eds) The South Atlantic: Present and Past Circulation, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, pp. 363-410.
4. BERGGREN, W. A. & HOLLISTER, C. D. 1974. Paleogeography, paleobiogeography, and the history of circulation of the Atlantic Ocean. In: HAY, W. W. (ed.) Studies in Paleoceanography, Special Publication, vol. 20, SEPM, pp. 126-186.
5. BILLUPS, K. 2002. Late Miocene through early Pliocene deep water circulation and climate change viewed from the sub-Antarctic South Atlantic. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 185, 287-307.
6. BILLUPS, K., RAVELO, A. C., ZACHOS, J. C. & NORRIS, R. N. 1999. Link between oceanic heat transport, thermohaline circulation, and the Intertropical Convergence Zone in the early Pliocene Atlantic. Geology, 27, 319-322.
7. BOLLI, H. M. 1971. The direction of coiling in planktonic foraminifera. In: FUNNELL, B. M. & RIEDEL, W. R. (eds) The Micropaleontology of the Oceans, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 639-648.
8. BOWEN, B. W., CLARK, A. M., ABREU-GROBOIS, F. A., CHAVES, A., REICHART, H. A. & FERL, R. J. 1997. Global phylogeography of the ridley sea turtles (Lepidochelys spp.) as inferred from mitochondrial DNA sequences. Genetica, 101, 179-189.
9. BROECKER, W. S. & DENTON, G. H. 1989. The role of ocean-atmosphere reorganizations in glacial cycles. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 53, 2465-2501.
10. BURNHAM, R. 1999. The history of neotropical vegetation: New developments and status. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden, 86, 546-589.
11. BURTON, K. W., LING, H.-F. & O'NIONS, R. K. 1997. Closure of the Central American Isthmus and its effect on deep-water formation in the North Atlantic, 386, 382-385.
12. CANE, M. A. & MOLNAR, P. 2001. Closing of the Indonesian seaway as a precursor to east African aridification around 3-4 million years ago. Nature, 411, 157-162.
13. CANNARIATO, K. G. & RAVELO, A. C. 1997. Plio-Pleistocene evolution of eastern tropical Pacific surface water ciruclation and thermocline depth. Paleoceanography, 12, 805-820.
14. CHAISSON, W. P. 2003. Vicarious living: Pliocene menardellids between an isthmus and an ice sheet. Geology, 31, 1085-1088.
15. CHAISSON, W. P. & LECKIE, R. M. 1993. High-resolution planktonic foraminifer biostratigraphy of Site 806, Ontong Java Plateau (Western Equatorial Pacific). In: BERGER, W. H., KROENKE, L. W, & MAYER, L. A. (eds) Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, Scientific Results, 130, Ocean Drilling Project, College Station, TX, pp. 137-178.
16. CHAISSON, W. P. & PEARSON, P. N. 1997. Planktonic foraminifer biostratigraphy at Site 925: Middle Miocene -Pleistocene. In: SHACKLETON, N. J,, CURRY, W. B., RICHTER, C. & BRALOWER, T. J. (eds) Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, Scientific Results, 154, Ocean Drilling Program, College Station, TX, pp. 3-31.
17. CHAISSON, W. P. & RAVELO, A. C. 1997. Changes in upper water-column structure at Site 925, Late Miocene-Pleistocene: Planktonic foraminifer assemblage and isotope evidence. In: SHACKLETON, N. J., CURRY, W. B., RICHTER, C. & BRALOWER, T. J. (eds) Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, Scientific Results, 154, Ocean Drilling Program, College Station, TX, pp. 255-268.
18. CHAISSON, W. P. & RAVELO, A. C. 2000. Pliocene development of the cast-west hydrographic gradient in the equatorial Pacific. Paleoceanography, 15, 497-505.
19. CHEETHAM, A. H. & JACKSON, J. B. C. 1996. Speciation, extinction, and the decline of arborescent grwoth in Neogene and Quaternary cheilostorne Bryozoa of tropical America. In: JACKSON, J. B. C., BUDD, A. F. & COATES, A. G. (eds) Evolution and Environment in Tropical America, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, pp. 205-233.
20. COATES, A. G. & OBANDO, J. A. 1996. The geologic evolution of the central American isthmus. In: JACKSON, J. B. C., BUDD, A. F. & COATES, A. G. (eds) Evolution and Environment in Tropical America, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, pp. 21-56.
21. COATES, A. G., COLLINS, L. S., AUBRY, M. P. & BERGGREN, W. A. 2004. The Geology of the Darien, Panama, and the late Miocene-Pliocene collision of the Panama arc with northwestern South America. GSA Bulletin, 116, 1327-1344.
22. COATES, A. G., JACKSON, J. B. C., COLLINS, L. S. ET AL., 1992. Closure of the Isthmus of Panama: the near-Shore Marine Record of Costa-Rica and Western Panama. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 104, 814-828.
23. COLLINS, L. S., BUDD, A. F. & COATES, A. G. 1996a. Earliest evolution associated with closure of the Tropical American Seaway. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 93, 6069-6072.
24. COLLINS, L. S., COATES, A. G., BERGGREN, W. A., AUBRY, M.-P. & ZHANG, J. 1996b. The late Miocene Panama isthmian strait. Geology, 24, 687-690.
25. COLLINS, T. M., FRAZER, K., PALMER, A. R., VERMEIJ, G. J. & BROWN, W. M. 1996c. Evolutionary history of northern hemisphere Nucella (Gastropoda, Muricidae): molecules, ecology, and fossils. Evolution, 50, 2287-2304.
26. CORTESE, G., GERSONDE, R., HILLENBRAND, C.-D. & KUHN, G. 2004. Opal sedimentation shifts in the World Ocean over the last 15 Myr. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 224, 509-527.
27. CRONIN, T. M. & DOWSETT, H. J. 1996. Biotic and oceanographic response to the Pliocene closing of the Central American isthmus. In: JACKSON, J. B. C., BUDD, A. F. & COATES, A. G. (eds) Evolution and Environment in Tropical America, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, pp. 76-104.
28. 2 and climate change. Science, 292, 870-872.
29. DELANEY, M. L. 1990. Miocene benthic foraminiferal Cd/Ca records: South Atlantic and western equatorial Pacific. Paleoceanography, 5, 743-760.
30. DOBSON, M. D., DICKENS, G. R. & REA, D. K. 1997. Terrigenous sedimentation of Ceara Rise. In: CURRY, R., SHACKLETON, N. J. & RICHTER, C. (eds) Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, Scientific Results, 154, Ocean Drilling Program, College Station, TX.
31. DRISCOLL, N. W. & HAUG, G. H. 1998. A short circuit in thermohaline circulation: a cause for Northern Hemisphere glaciation? Science, 282, 436-438.
32. DUQUE-CARO, H. 1990. Neogene stratigraphy, paleoceanography and paleobiography in northwest South America and the evolution of the Panama Seaway. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 77, 203-234.
33. FARRELL, J. W. ET AL., 1995. Late Neogene sedimentation patterns in the eastern equatorial Pacific Ocean. In: PISIAS, N., MAYER, L. & JANECEK, T. R. (eds) Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, Scientific Results, 138, Ocean Drilling Program, College Station, TX, pp. 717-756.
34. FRANK, M., REYNOLDS, B. C. & O'NIONS, K. 1999. Nd & Pb isotopes in Atlantic and Pacific water masses before and after the closure of the Panama gateway. Geology, 27, 1147-1150.
35. GARTNER, S., CHOW, J. & STANTON, R. J. 1987. Late Neogene paleoceanography of the eastern Caribbean, the Gulf of Mexico, and the eastern Equatorial Pacific. Marine Micropaleontology, 12, 255-304.
36. GRAHAM, A. 1992. Utilization of the isthmian land bridge during the Cenozoic - paleobotanical evidence for timing, and the selective influence of altitudes and climate. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology, 72, 119-128.
37. GREGORY-WODZICKI, K. M. 2000. Andean paleo-elevation estimates: A review and critique. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 112, 1091-1105.
38. HALL, R. 2001. Cenozoic reconstructions of SE Asia and the SW Pacific: changing patterns of land and sea. In: METCALFE, I., SMITH, J. M. B., MORWOOD, M. & DAVIDSON, I. D. (eds) Faunal and Floral Migrations and Evolution in SE Asia-Australasia, A.A. Balkema, Lisse, 35-56.
39. HAQ, B. U., HARDENBOL, J. & VAIL, P. R. 1987. The new chronostratigraphic basis of Cenozoic and Mesozoic sea level cycles. Special Publication of the Cushman Foundation of Foraminiferal Research, 24, 7-13.
40. HAUG, G. & TIEDEMANN, R. 1998. Effect of the formation of the Isthmus of Panama on Atlantic Ocean thermobaline circulation. Nature, 393, 673-676.
41. HAUG, G. H., SIGMAN, D. M., TIEDEMANN, R., PEDERSEN, T. & SARNTHEIM, M. 1999. Onset of permanent stratification in the subarctic Pacific Ocean. Nature, 401, 779-782.
42. HAUG, G., TIEDEMANN, R., ZAHN, R. & RAVELO, A. C. 2001. Role of Panama uplift on oceanic freshwater balance. Geology, 29, 207-210.
43. HAUG, G. H. ET AL. 2005. North Pacific seasonality and the glaciation of North America 2.7 million years ago. Nature, 433, 821-825.
44. JACKSON, J. B. C., JUNG, P., COATES, A. G. & COLLINS, L. S. 1993. Diversity and extinction of tropical American mollusks and emergence of the Isthmus of Panama. Science, 260, 1624-1626.
45. KAMEO, K. & SATO, T. 2000. Biogeography of Neogene calcareous nannofossils in the Caribbean and the eastern equatorial Pacific - floral response to the emergence of the Isthmus of Panama. Marine Micropaleontology, 39, 201-218.
46. KEIGWIN, L. 1982a. Isotopic paleoceanography of the Caribbean and East Pacific: role of Panama uplift in late Neogene time. Science, 217, 350-353.
47. KEIGWIN, L. D. 1982b. Isotopic paleoccanography of the Caribbean and east Pacific: role of Panama uplift in late Neogene time. Science, 217, 350-353.
48. KELLER, G. & BARRON, J. A. 1983. Paleoceanographic implications of the Miocene deep-sea hiatuses. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 94, 590-613.
49. KELLER, G., ZENKER, C. E. & STONE, S. M. 1989. Late Neogene history of the Pacific-Caribbean gateway. Journal of South American Earth Science, 2, 73-108.
50. KENNETT, J. P. & SRINIVASAN, M. S. 1983. Neogene Planktonic Foraminifera: A Phylogenetic Atlas. Hutchinson Ross, Stroudsburg, PA.
51. KING, T. A., ELLIS, W. G., MURRAY, D. W., SHACKLETON, N. J. & HARRIS, S. 1997. Miocene evolution of carbonate sedimentation at the Ceara Rise: a multivariate data/proxy approach. In: SHACKLETON, N. J., CURRY, W. B., RICHTER, C. & BRALOWER, T. J. (eds) Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, Scientific Results, 154, Ocean Drilling Program, College Station, TX, pp. 349-365.
52. KIRBY, M. X. & MACFADDEN, B. 2005. Was southern Central America an archipelago or a peninsula in the middle Miocene? A test using land-mammal body size. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 228, 193-202.
53. KLOCKER, A., PRANGE, M. & SCHULZ, M. 2005. Testing the influence of the Central American Seaway on orbitally forced northern hemisphere glaciation. Geophysical Research Letters, 32.
54. KNOWLTON, C. & WEIGHT, L. A. 1998. New dates and new rates for divergence across the Ishmus of Panama. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 265, 2257-2263.
55. KNOWLTON, N., WEIGHT, L. A., SOLORZANO, L. A., MILLS, D. K. & BERMINGHAM, E. 1993. Divergence in proteins, mitochondrial DNA, and reproductive compatibility across the Isthmus of Panama. Science, 260, 1629-1631.
56. 2 concentrations. Marine Micropaleontology, 27, 299-312.
57. LEAR, C. H., ROSENTHAL, Y. & WRIGHT, J. D. 2003. The closing of a seaway; ocean water masses and global climate change. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 210, 425-436.
58. LEDBETTER, M. T. 1982. Tephrachronology at Sites 502 and 503. In: PRELL, W. L. & GARDNER, J. V. (eds) Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project, 68, Governmental Printing Office, Washington, pp. 403-408.
59. LESSIOS, H. A., KESSING, B. D. & PEARSE, J. S. 2001. Population structure and speciation in tropical seas: Global phylogeography of the sea urchin Diadema. Evolution, 55, 955-975.
60. LESSIOS, H. A., KANE, J. & ROBERTSON, D. R. 2003. Phylogeography of the pantropical sea urchin Tripneustes: constraining patterns of population structure between oceans. Evolution, 57, 2026-2036.
61. 18O records. Paleoceanography, 20, PA1003, doi:10.1029/2004PA001071.
62. LOURENS, L. J., HILGEN, F. J., LASKAR, J., SHACKLETON, N. J. & WILSON, D. 2005. The Neogene Period. In: GRADSTEIN, F. M., OGG, J. & SMITH, A. G. (eds) A Geologic Time Scale, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
63. LUNDELIUS, E. L. 1987. The North American quaternary sequence. In: WOODBURNF, M. O. (ed.), Cenozoic Mammals of North America, University of California Press, pp. 211-235.
64. MAcFADDEN, B. J. 2005. Middle Miocene land mammals from the Cucaracha Formation (Hemingfordian-Barstovian) of Panama. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology.
65. MAIER-REIMER, E., MIKOLAJEWICZ, U. & CROWLEY, T. 1990. Ocean general circulation model sensitivity experiment with an open Central American Isthmus. Paleoceanography, 5, 349-366.
66. MARLOW, J. R., LANGE, C. B., WEFER, G. & ROSELLMELÉ, A. 2000. Upwelling intensification as part of the Pliocene-Pleistocene climate transition. Science, 290, 2288-2291.
67. MARSHALL, L. G. 1988. Land mammals and the Great American interchange. American Scientist, 76, 380-386.
68. MARSHALL, L. G., WEBB, S. D., SEPKOSKI, J. & RAUP, D. 1982. Mammalian Evolution and the Great American Interchange. Science, 215, 1351-1357.
69. MASLIN, M. A., LI, X. S., LOUTRE, M.-F. & BERGER, A. 1998, The contribution of orbital forcing to the progressive intensification of Northern Hemisphere glaciation. Quaternary Science Reviews, 17, 411-426.
70. MIKOLAJEWICZ, U. & CROWLEY, J. L. 1997. Response of a coupled ocean/energy balance model to restricted flow through the Central American Isthmus. Paleoceanography, 12, 429-442.
71. MIKOLAJEWICZ, U., MAIER-REIMER, E., CROWLEY, J. L. & KIM, K.-Y. 1993. Effect of Drake and Panamanian gateways on the circulation of an ocean model. Paleoceanography, 8, 409-426.
72. MORAN, K. ET AL. 2006. The Cenozoic palaeoenvironment of the Arctic Ocean. 441, 601-605.
73. MUDELSEE, M. & RAYMO, M. E. 2005. Slow dynamics of the Northern Hemisphere glaciation. Paleoceanography, 20, PA4022, http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2005PA001153.
74. MUSS, A., ROBERTSON, D. R., STEPIEN, C. A., WIRTZ, P. & BOWEN, B. W. 2001. Phylogeography of Ophioblennius: The role of ocean currents and geography in reef fish evolution. Evolution, 55, 561-572.
75. NISANCIOGLU, K. H., RAYMO, M. E. & STONE, P. H. 2003. Reorganisation of Miocene deep water circulation in response to the shoaling of the Central American Seaway. Paleoceanography, 18, dio:10.1029/PA2002PA000767.
76. PEARSON, P. N. & PALMER, M. R. 2000. Atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations over the past 60 million years. Nature, 406, 695-699.
77. PERDICES, A., DOADRIO, I. & BERMINGHAM, E. 2005. Evolutionary history of the synbranchid eels (Teleostei: Synbranchidae) in Central America and the Caribbean islands inferred from their molecular phylogeny. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, 37, 460-473.
78. PRANGE, M. & SCHULZ, M. 2004. A coastal upwelling seesaw in the Atlantic Ocean as a result of the closure of the Central American Seaway. Geophysical Research Letters, 31, L17207, doi: 10.1029/2004GL020073.
79. RAVELO, A. C., ANDREASEN, D. H., LYLE, M., LYLE, A. O. & WARA, M. W. 2004. Regional climate shifts caused by gradual global cooling in the Pliocene epoch. Nature, 429, 263-267.
80. RAVELO, A. C., BILLUPS, K., DEKENS, P. S., HERBERT, T. D & LAWRENCE, K. T 2007. Onto the ice ages: proxy evidence for the onset of Northern Hemisphere glaciation. In: WILLIAMS, M., HAYWOOD, A. M., GREGORY, F. J, & SCHMIDT, D. N. (eds) Dept-Time Perspectives on Climate Change: Marrying the Signal from Computer Models and Biological Proxies. The Micropalaeontological Society, Special Publications. The Geological Society, London, pp. 000-000.
81. RAYMO, M. E., RUDDIMAN, W. F. & FROELICH, P. N. 1988. Influence of late Cenozoic mountain building on ocean geochemical cycles. Geology, 16, 649-653.
82. REUMER, J. J. G., BETZLER, C., KROON, D., TIEDEMANN, R. & EBERLI, G. P. 2002. Bahamian carbonate platform development in response to sea-level changes and the closure of the Isthmus of Panama. International Journal of Earth Sciences, 91, 482-489.
83. RICKABY, R. E. M. & HALLORAN, P. 2005. Cool La Nina During the Warmth of the Pliocene? Science, 307, 1948-1952.
84. ROTH, J. M., DROXLER, A. W. & KAMEO, K. 2000. The Caribbean carbonate crash at the Middle to Late Miocene transition: Linkage to the establishment of the modern gobal ocean conveyor. In: LECKIE, R. M., SIGURDSSON, H., ACTON, G. D. & DRAPER, G. (eds) Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, Scientific Results, 165, Ocean Drilling Program, College Station, TX, pp. 249-273.
85. SCHLITZER, R. 2006. Ocean Data View - 3.1.0, http://odv.awi.de: //odv.awi.de.
86. SCHMIDT, D. N. submitted. Neogene foraminiferal biostratigraphy in the Mid-latitude Atlantic. In: KROON, D. (ed.), Leg 208, 208, Ocean Drilling Program, Scientific Reports, College Station, TX.
87. SCHMIDT, D. N., RENAUD, S., BOLLMANN, J., SCHIEBEL, R. & THIERSTEIN, H. R. 2004a. Size distribution of Holocene planktic foraminifer assemblages: biogeography, ecology and adaptation. Marine Micropaleontology, 50, 319-338.
88. SCHMIDT, D, N., THIERSTEIN, H. R. & BOLLMANN, J. 2004b. The evolutionary history of size variation of planktic foraminiferal assemblages in the Cenozoic. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 212, 159-180.
89. SCHMIDT, D. N., THIERSTEIN, H. R., BOLLMANN, J. & SCHIEBEL, R. 2004c. Abiotic Forcing of Plankton Evolution in the Cenozoic. Science, 303, 207-210.
90. SCHMITTNER, A. ET AL. 2004. Global Impact of the Panamanian Seaway Closure. Eos, Transactions, American Geophysical Union, 85, 526-528.
91. SCHREIBER, E. A., FEARE, C. J., HARRINGTON, B. A., MURRAY, B. G., ROBERSTON, W, B., ROBERSTON, M. J. & WOOLFENDEN, G. E. 2002. Sooty tern (Sterna fuscata). In: POOLE, A. & GILL, F. (eds) The Birds of North America, 665, The Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, pp. 1-31.
92. SHACKLETON, N. J. ET AL. 1984. Oxygen isotope calibration of the onset of ice-rafting and history of glaciation in the North Atlantic region. Nature, 207, 620-623.
93. SIGMAN, D. M., JACCARD, S. L. & HAUG, G. H. 2004. Polar ocean stratification in a cold climate. Nature, 428, 59-63.
94. SPENCER-CERVATO, C. & THIERSTEIN, H. R. 1997. First appearance of Globorotalia truncantulinoides; cladogenesis and immigration. Marine Micropaleontology, 30, 267-291.
95. STEEVES, T. E., ANDERSON, D. J., MCNALLY, H., KIM, M. J. & FRIESEN, V. L. 2003. Phylogeography of Sula: the role of physical barriers to gene flow in the diversification of tropical seabirds. Journal of Avian Biology, 34, 217-223.
96. STEEVES, T. E., ANDERSON, D. J. & FRIESEN, V. L. 2005. The Isthmus of Panama: A major physical barrier to gene flow in a highly mobile pantropical seabird. Journal of Evolutionary Biology, 18, 1000-1008.
97. THIEDE, J., WINKLER, A., WOLF-WELLING, T. ET AL., 1998. Late Cenozoic history of the Polar North Atlantic: results from ocean drilling. Quaternary Science Reviews, 17, 185-208.
98. TIEDEMANN, R. & FRANZ, S. O. 1997. Deep-water circulation, chemistry, and terrigenous sediment supply in the Equatorial Atlantic during the Pliocene, 3.3-2.6 Ma and 5-4.5 Ma. In: SHACKLETON, N. J., CURRY, W. B., RICHTER, C. & BRALOWER, T. J. (eds) Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, Scientific Results, 154, Ocean Drilling Program, College Station, TX, 299-318.
99. 18O and dust flux records of Ocean Drilling Program site 659. Paleoceanography, 9, 619-638.
100. TODD, J. A., JACKSON, J. B. C., JOHNSON, K. G., FORTUNATO, H. M., HEITZ, A., ALVAREZ, M. & JUNG, P. 2002. The ecology of extinction: molluscan feeding and faunal turnover in the Caribbean Neogene. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B, 269, 571-577.
101. TOMCZAK, M. & GODFREY, J. S. 1994. Regional Oceanography: An Introduction. Pergamon, Elsevier Science Ltd., Oxford, 422pp.
102. VERMEIJ, G. J. & PETUCH, E. J. 1986. Differential extinction in tropical American molluscs: endemism, architecture, and the Panama land bridge. Malacologia, 27, 29-41.
103. WARA, M. W., RAVELO, A. C. & DELANEY, M. L. 2005. Permanent El Nino-Like Conditions During the Pliocene Warm Period. Science, 309, 758-761.
104. WEBB, S. D. 1976. Mammalian faunal dynamics of the great American interchange. Paleobiology, 2, 220-234.
105. WEBB, S. D. 1985. Late Cenozoic mammal dispersals between the Americas. In: STEHLI, F. G. & WEBB, S. D. (eds) The Great American Biotic Interchange, Plenum Press, New York, 357-388.
106. WEBB, S. D. 1991. Ecogeography and the Great American Interchange. Paleobiology, 17, 266-280.
107. WEBB, S. D. 1997. The great American faunal interchange. In: COATES, A. G. (ed.) Central America: A Natural and Cultural History, Yale University Press, New Haven, CT, 97-122.
108. WHITMORE, F. C. & STEWART, R. H. 1965. Miocene mammals and Central American seaways. Science, 148, 180-185.
109. WOLD, C. N. 1994. Cenozoic sediment accumulation on drifts in the northern North Atlantic. Paleoceanography, 9, 917-942.
110. WRIGHT, J. D. & MILLER, K. G. 1996. Control of the North Atlantic Deep Water circulation by the Greenland-Scotland Ridge. Paleoceanography, 11, 157-170.
111. WRIGHT, J. D., MILLER, K. G. & FAIRBANKS, R. G. 1991. Evolution of modern deepwater circulation: evidence from the Late Miocene Southern Ocean. Paleoceanography, 6, 275-290.
112. WRIGHT, J. D., MILLER, K. G. & FAIRBANKS, R. G. 1992. Early and Middle Miocene stable Isotopes: implication for deepwater circulation and climate. Paleoceanography, 7, 357-389.
113. ZACHOS, J. C., PAGANI, M., SLOAN, L., THOMAS, E. & BILLUPS, K. 2001. Trends, rhythms, and aberrations in global climate 65 Ma to present. Science, 292, 686-693.