Secondary hypertension: Current diagnosis and treatment

International Journal of Cardiology

Volumn 124, Issue 1, 2008, Pages 6-21

  Chiong, Jun R ^a   Aronow, Wilbert S ^b   Khan, Ijaz A ^c   Nair, Chandra K ^d   Vijayaraghavan, Krishnaswami ^e   Dart, Richard A ^f   Behrenbeck, Thomas R ^g   Geraci, Stephen A ^h  

^a LOMA LINDA UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b NEW YORK MEDICAL COLLEGE   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND   (United States)

^d CREIGHTON UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^e Scottsdale Cardiovascular Center   (United States)

^f MARSHFIELD CLINIC   (United States)

^g MAYO CLINIC   (United States)

^h UNIVERSITY OF MISSISSIPPI   (United States)

Author keywords

Angiotensin; Endocrine; Hormones; Hypertension; Kidneys; Secondary hypertension

Indexed keywords

ALPHA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; ANGIOTENSIN RECEPTOR ANTAGONIST; BETA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; BROMOCRIPTINE; CABERGOLINE; CALCIUM CHANNEL BLOCKING AGENT; CORTICOSTEROID; CYCLOPHOSPHAMIDE; DIGOXIN; DIPEPTIDYL CARBOXYPEPTIDASE INHIBITOR; DIURETIC AGENT; ETANERCEPT; FENFLURAMINE; INFLIXIMAB; LEVODOPA; MYCOPHENOLIC ACID; OCTREOTIDE; PEGVISOMANT; PERGOLIDE; PHENOTHIAZINE; PHENYLEPHRINE; PROPYLTHIOURACIL; RADIOACTIVE IODINE; RITUXIMAB; SEROTONIN UPTAKE INHIBITOR; THIAMAZOLE; THIAZIDE DIURETIC AGENT; TRICYCLIC ANTIDEPRESSANT AGENT; UNINDEXED DRUG; YOHIMBINE;

ACROMEGALY; AORTA; CARCINOID SYNDROME; COMPUTER ASSISTED TOMOGRAPHY; CUSHING SYNDROME; DIAGNOSTIC TEST; DYSAUTONOMIA; GUILLAIN BARRE SYNDROME; HUMAN; HYPERALDOSTERONISM; HYPERPARATHYROIDISM; HYPERTENSION; HYPERTHYROIDISM; HYPOKALEMIA; HYPOTHYROIDISM; INTRACRANIAL PRESSURE; KIDNEY DISEASE; LIDDLE SYNDROME; MATERNAL HYPERTENSION; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; PATIENT ASSESSMENT; PERITONEAL DIALYSIS; PHEOCHROMOCYTOMA; PRIMARY HYPERALDOSTERONISM; PRIORITY JOURNAL; QUADRIPLEGIA; RENIN ANGIOTENSIN ALDOSTERONE SYSTEM; RENOVASCULAR DISEASE; RENOVASCULAR HYPERTENSION; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; SLEEP APNEA SYNDROME; SUPRAVENTRICULAR TACHYCARDIA; VASCULITIS;

ANTIHYPERTENSIVE AGENTS; DIAGNOSIS, DIFFERENTIAL; HUMANS; HYPERTENSION; INCIDENCE; PREVALENCE; RISK FACTORS;

EID: 38149071525     PISSN: 01675273     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.ijcard.2007.01.119     Document Type: Review

References (178)

1. Chobanian A.V., Bakris G.L., Black H.R., et al. Seventh report of the joint national committee on prevention, detection, evaluation, and treatment of high blood pressure: the JNC 7 report. JAMA 290 (2003) 2560-2572
2. Kaplan N.M. Systemic hypertension: mechanisms and diagnosis. In: Zipes D.P., Libby P., and Bonow R.O. (Eds). Braunwald's heart disease. 7th ed. (2005), Elsevier Sanders, Philadelphia, PA 959-1012
3. Fava C., Minuz P., Patrignani P., et al. Renal artery stenosis and accelerated atherosclerosis: which comes first?. J Hypertens 24 9 (Sep 2006) 1687-1696
4. Braam B., and Koomans H.A. Renal responses to antagonism of the renin-angiotensin system. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens 5 (1996) 89-96
5. Eklof H., Ahlstrom H., Magnusson A., et al. A prospective comparison of duplex ultrasonography, captopril renography, MRA, and CTA in assessing renal artery stenosis. Acta Radiol 47 8 (Oct 2006) 764-774
6. Radermacher J., and Haller H. The right diagnostic work-up: investigating renal and renovascular disorders. J Hypertens Suppl 21 2 (May 2003) S19-S24
7. Iannone L.A., Underwood P.L., Nath A., et al. Effect of primary balloon expandable renal artery stents on long-term patency, renal function, and blood pressure in hypertensive and renal insufficient patients with renal artery stenosis. Cathet Cardiovasc Diagn 37 3 (Mar 1996) 243-250
8. Middleton J.P. Ischemic disease of the kidney: how and why to consider revascularisation. J Nephrol 11 (1998) 123-136
9. Harden P.N., MacLeod M.J., Rodger R.S.C., et al. Effect of renal artery stenting on progression of renovascular renal failure. Lancet 349 (1997) 1133-1136
10. Balk E., Raman G., Chung M., et al. Systematic review: comparative effectiveness of management strategies for renal artery stenosis. Ann Intern Med (Oct 24 2006)
11. Bakris G.L., Williams M., Dworkin L., et al. Preserving renal function in adults with hypertension and diabetes: a consensus approach. Am J Kidney Dis 36 (2000) 646-661
12. Jensen J.S., Feldt-Rasmussen B., Strandgaard S., et al. Arterial hypertension, microalbuminuria, and risk of ischemic heart disease. Hypertension 35 (2000) 898-903
13. Mann J.F., Gerstein H.C., Pogue J., et al. Renal insufficiency as a predictor of cardiovascular outcomes and the impact of ramipril: the HOPE randomized trial. Ann Intern Med 134 (2001) 629-636
14. Manjunath G., Tighiouart H., Ibrahim H., et al. Level of kidney function as a risk factor or atherosclerotic cardiovascular outcomes in the community. J Am Coll Cardiol 41 (2003) 47-55
15. Renal data system: USRDS 2003 Annual Report: Atlas of end-stage renal disease in the United States. National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (2003), National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD
16. Franklin S.S., Jacobs M.J., Wong N.D., et al. Predominance of isolated systolic hypertension among middle-aged and elderly US hypertensives: analysis based on National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. (NHANES III). Hypertension 37 (2001) 869-874
17. Jafar T.H., Stark P.C., Schmid C.H., et al. Progression of chronic kidney disease: the role of blood pressure control, proteinuria, and angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition: a patient level meta-analysis. Ann Intern Med 139 (2003) 244-252
18. Egan B. Challenges and risks in attaining the systolic blood pressure goal of < 130 mm Hg in all diabetic patients. J Clin Hypertens 8 (2006) 50-52 [Editorial]
19. Hollenberg N. Is there a pharmacologic basis for combination rennin axis blockade?. Kidney Int 68 (2005) 2901-2903
20. Rubenstein J.N., Eggener S.E., Pins M.R., et al. Juxtaglomerular apparatus tumor: a rare, surgically correctable cause of hypertension. Rev Urol 4 4 (Fall 2002) 192-195
21. Findling J.W., Raff H., Hansson J.H., et al. Liddle's syndrome: prospective genetic screening and suppressed aldosterone secretion in an extended kindred. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 82 4 (Apr 1997) 1071-1074
22. Nakada T., Koike H., Akiya T., et al. Liddle's syndrome, an uncommon form of hyporeninemic hypoaldosteronism: functional and histopathological studies. J Urol 137 4 (Apr 1987) 636-640
23. Jennette J.C., and Falk R.J. The pathology of vasculitis involving the kidney. Am J Kidney Dis 24 1 (Jul 1994) 130-141
24. Buhaescu I., Covic A., and Levy J. Systemic vasculitis: still a challenging disease. Am J Kidney Dis 46 2 (Aug 2005) 173-185
25. Koc M., Toprak A., Tezcan H., et al. Uncontrolled hypertension due to volume overload contributes to higher left ventricular mass index in CAPD patients. Nephrol Dial Transplant 17 9 (Sep 2002) 1661-1666
26. Gunal A.I., Karaca I., Celiker H., et al. Strict volume control in the treatment of nephrogenic ascites. Nephrol Dial Transplant 17 (Jul 2002) 1248-1251
27. Maugans T.A., and Coates M.L. Diagnosis and treatment of acromegaly. Am Fam Physician 52 (1995) 207-213
28. Cuocolo A., Nicotai E., Pazio S., et al. Impaired left ventricular diastolic filling in patients with acromegaly: assessment with radionuclide angiography. J Nucl Med 36 (1995) 196-201
29. Kreutzer J., Vance M.L., Lopes M.B., et al. Surgical management of GH-secreting pituitary adenomas: an outcome study using modern remission criteria. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 86 9 (Sep 2001) 4072-4077
30. van der Lely A.J., Hutson R.K., Trainer P.J., et al. Long-term treatment of acromegaly with pegvisomant, a growth hormone receptor antagonist. Lancet 358 9295 (Nov 24 2001) 1754-1759
31. Woeber K.A. Thyrotoxicosis and the heart. N Engl J Med 327 (1992) 94-98
32. Shirani J., Barron M.M., Pierre-Louis M.L., et al. Congestive heart failure, dilated cardiac ventricles, and sudden death in hyperthyroidism. Am J Cardiol 72 (1993) 365-368
33. Nakazawa H.K., Sakurai K., Hamada N., et al. Management of atrial fibrillation in the post thyrotoxic state. Am J Med 72 (1982) 903-906
34. Saadi H. Clinical Implications of the interaction between hypothyroidism and the cardiovascular system. Cleve Clin J Med 64 (1997) 93-98
35. Martinez M., Derksen D., and Kapsner P. Making sense of hypothyroidism. An approach to testing and treatment. Postgrad Med 93 (1993) 135-145
36. Lewanczuk R.Z., Resnick L.M., Ho M.S., et al. Clinical aspects of parathyroid hypertensive factor. J Hypertens Suppl 12 1 (Jan 1994) S11-S16
37. Sacerdote A., Weiss K., Tran T., et al. Hypertension in patients with Cushing's disease: pathophysiology, diagnosis, and management. Curr Hypertens Rep 7 3 (Jun 2005) 212-218
38. Mancini T., Kola B., Mantero F., et al. High cardiovascular risk in patients with Cushing's syndrome according to 1999 WHO/ISH guidelines. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 61 6 (Dec 2004) 768-777
39. Emral R., Uysal A.R., Asik M., et al. Prevalence of subclinical Cushing's syndrome in 70 patients with adrenal incidentaloma: clinical, biochemical and surgical outcomes. Endocr J 50 4 (Aug 2003) 399-408
40. Baid S., and Nieman L.K. Glucocorticoid excess and hypertension. Curr Hypertens Rep 6 6 (Dec 2004) 493-499
41. Kaplan N.M. Cautions over the current epidemic of primary aldosteronism. Lancet 357 (2001) 953-954
42. Lim P.O., Jung R.T., and McDonald T.M. Raised aldosterone to rennin ration predicts antihypertensive efficacy of spironolactone: a prospective cohort follow-up study. Br J Clin Pharmacol 48 (1999) 756-760
43. Blumenfeld J.D., Sealey J.E., Schlussel Y., et al. Diagnosis and treatment of primary hyperaldosteronism. Ann Intern Med 121 (1994) 877-885
44. Foo R., O'Shaughnessy K.M., and Brown M.J. Hyperaldosteronism recent concepts, diagnosis, and management. J Postgrad Med 77 (2001) 639-644
45. Holland O.B., Brown H., Kuhnert L., et al. Further evaluation of saline infusion for the diagnosis of primary aldosteronism. Hypertension 6 5 (Sep-Oct 1984) 717-723
46. Bravo E.L. Primary aldosteronism. Issues in diagnosis and management. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 23 2 (Jun 1994) 271-283
47. Jeck T., Weissner B., Mengden T., et al. Primary aldosteronism difference in clinical presentation and long-term follow-up between adenoma and bilateral hyperplasia of the adrenal glands. Clin Invest Med 72 (1994) 979-984
48. Young Jr. W.F., Stanson A.W., Grant C.S., et al. Primary aldosteronism: adrenal venous sampling. Surgery 120 (1996) 133-139
49. Novick A.C. Surgery for primary hyperaldosteronism. Urol Clin North Am 16 (1989) 535-555
50. Werbel S.S., and Ober K.P. Phaeochromocytoma: update on diagnosis, localization and management. Med Clin North Am 79 (1995) 131-153
51. Dabrowska B., Dabrowski A., Pruszczyk P., et al. Heart rate variability in pheochromocytoma. Am J Cardiol 76 16 (Dec 1 1995) 1202-1204
52. Scott I., Parkes R., and Cameron D.P. Phaeochromocytoma and cardiomyopathy. Med J Aust (1988) 148-194
53. Sheps S.G., Jiang N.S., Klee G.G., et al. Recent development in the diagnosis and treatment of phaeochromocytoma. Mayo Clin Proc 65 (1990) 88-95
54. McGuire M.R., Pugh D.M., and Dunn M.I. Carcinoid heart disease. Restrictive cardiomyopathy as a late complication. J Kans Med Soc 79 (1978) 661-665
55. Pelikka P.A., Tajik A.J., Khandheria B.K., et al. Carcinoid heart disease. Clinical and echocardiography spectrum in 74 patients. Circulation 87 (1993) 1188-1196
56. Robiolio P.A., Rigolin V.H., Wilson J.S., et al. Carcinoid heart disease. Correlation of high serotonin levels with valvular abnormalities detected by cardiac catherizations and echocardiography. Circulation 92 (1995) 790-795
57. Blick D.R., Zoghbi W.A., Lawrie G.M., et al. Carcinoid heart disease presenting as right-to-left shunt and congestive heart failure: successful surgical treatment. Am Heart J 115 (1988) 201-203
58. Ross E.M., and Roberts W.C. The carcinoid syndrome: comparison of 21 necropsy subjects with carcinoid heart disease to 15 necropsy subjects without carcinoid heart disease. Am J Med 79 (1985) 339-354
59. Gaos C.M., Nasser M.M., and Wilansky S. Carcinoid heart disease. Circulation 95 (1997) 13-46
60. Lundin L., Norheim I., Landelius J., et al. Carcinoid heart disease: relationship of circulating vasoactive substances to ultrasound-detectable cardiac abnormalities. Circulation 77 (1988) 264-269
61. Jehle D.R., Keller F., and Schwarz A. Hypercalcemia-induced renal insufficiency during therapy with dihydrotachysterol. J Med 30 1&2 (1999) 39-50
62. AMA: drug evaluations subscriptions (1990), AMA Departement of Drugs, Chicago, IL
63. Vanhoutte P.M. Vascular nitric oxide. In: Izzo J.L., and Black H.R. (Eds). Ch A16. 3rd ed. Hypertension primer (2003), American Heart Association 44
64. Cantu C., Arauz A., Murillo-Bonilla L.M., et al. Stroke associated with sympathomimetics contained in over-the-counter cough and cold drugs. Stroke 34 (2003) 1667-1673
65. Bravo E.L. Phenylpropanolamine and other over-the-counter vasoactive compounds. Hypertension 11 (1988) 7-10
66. Birket-Smith E., and Andersen J.V. Treatment of side-effects of levodopa. Lancet 1 (1973) 431
67. Goldstein D.S., Eisenhofer G., and Garty M. Pharmacologic and tracer methods to study sympathetic function in primary hypertension. Clin Exp Hypertens A 11 Suppl 1 (1989) 173-189
68. Benowitz N.L., and Gourlay S.G. Cardiovascular toxicity of nicotine: implications of nicotine replacement therapy. JACC 29 (1997) 1422-1431
69. Amsterdam J.D., Garcia-Espana F., Fawcett J., et al. Blood pressure changes during short-term fluoxetine treatment. J Clin Psychopharmacol 19 1 (1999) 9-14
70. Watson D.L., Bhatia R.K., Norman G.S., et al. Bromocriptine mesylate for lactation suppression: a risk for postpartum hypertension?. Obstet Gynecol 74 (1989) 573-576
71. June R., Aks S.E., and Keys N. Medical outcome of cocaine bodystuffers. J Emerg Med 18 (2000) 221-224
72. Product information: elavil(R), amitriptyline hydrochloride (1998), Zeneca Pharmaceuticals, Wilmington, DE
73. Sweetman S (Ed): Martindale: The Complete Drug Reference. London: Pharmaceutical Press, (Internet version), Micromedex, Inc., Englewood, CO, 2000.
74. Product information: pondimin(R), fenfluramine (1997), AH Robins Company, Richmond, VA
75. Young J.D., and Crapo L.M. Protracted phencyclidine coma from an intestinal deposit. Arch Intern Med 152 (1992) 859-860
76. In: Koda-Kimble M.A., and Young L.L. (Eds). Applied therapeutics: the clinical use of drugs, 5th (1992), Applied Therapeutics, Inc., Vancouver, WA
77. Chobanian A.V. Mineralocorticoid-induced hypertension in patients with orthostatic hypotension. N Engl J Med 301 (1979) 68-73
78. Dukes M.N.G. Myler's side effects of drugs vol. 8 (1975), Excerpta Medica, New York
79. Sigurjonsdottir H.A., Franzson L., Manhem K., et al. Liquorice-induced rise in blood pressure: a linear dose-response relationship. J Hum Hypertens 15 8 (2001) 549-552
80. The Canadian Multicentre Transplant Study Group. A randomized clinical trial of cyclosporine in cadaveric renal transplantation. Analysis at three years. N Engl J Med 314 19 (May 8 1986) 1219-1225
81. Johnson B.E. Resistant hypertension due to pica (baking soda) (letter). Lancet 1 (1989) 550-551
82. Laragh J.H. Renin-guided therapy. Clinical hypertension review course syllabus (2005), American Society of Hypertension, New York 353-355
83. Micromedix healthcare series: POISINDEX summary: clonidine (Jan 2006), Thompson Healthcare, Inc.
84. Westervelt Jr. F.B., and Atuk N.O. Methyldopa-induced hypertension. JAMA 227 (1974) 557
85. Product information: testred(R), methyltestosterone, ICN Pharmaceuticals, Costa Mesa, CA, (PI revised 7/94) reviewed 4/2000. Testred(R), methyltestosterone, ICN Pharmaceuticals, Costa Mesa, CA, 94.
86. Mandel F.P., Geola F.L., Lu J.K.H., et al. Biologic effects of various doses of ethinyl estradiol in postmenopausal women. Obstet Gynecol 59 (1982) 673-679
87. Bretza J.A., Novey H.S., Vaziri N.D., et al. Hypertension: a complication of danazol therapy. Arch Intern Med 140 (1980) 1379-1380
88. Aabo K., De Coster R., et al. Hypertension during high-dose ketoconazole treatment: a probable mineralocorticosteroid effect. Lancet 2 (1987) 637-638
89. Dyer J.E., Roth B., and Hyma B.A. Gamma-hydroxybutyrate withdrawal syndrome. Ann Emerg Med 37 2 (2001) 147-153
90. King A.C., Errico A.L., Parsons O.A., et al. Blood pressure dysregulation associated with alcohol withdrawal. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 15 (1991) 478-482
91. Stewart M., and Burris J.F. Rebound hypertension during initiation of transdermal clonidine. Drug Intell Clin Pharm 22 (1988) 573-574
92. Olmedo R., and Hoffman R.S. Withdrawal syndromes. Emerg Med Clin North Am 18 (2000) 273-288
93. Vaziri N.D. Mechanism of erythropoietin-induced hypertension. Am J Kidney Dis 33 5 (1999) 821-828
94. Fallon B., Foote B., Walsh B.T., et al. 'Spontaneous' hypertensive episodes with monoamine oxidase inhibitors. J Clin Psychiatry 49 (1988) 163-165
95. Da Prada M., Zurcher G., Wuthrich I., et al. On tyramine, food, beverages and the reversible MAO inhibitor moclobemide. J Neural Transm 26 (1988) 31-56 [Suppl]
96. Brown C.S., and Bryant S.G. Monoamine oxidase inhibitors: safety and efficacy issues. Drug Intell Clin Pharm 22 (1988) 232-235
97. Blum I., Atsmon A., Steiner M., et al. Paradoxical rise in blood pressure during propranolol treatment. Br Med J 4 (1975) 623
98. Levine R.J., and Strauch B.S. Hypertensive responses to methyldopa. N Engl J Med 275 17 (1966) 946-948
99. Volicer L., and Nelson K.L. Development of reversible hypertension during disulfiram therapy. Arch Intern Med 144 (1984) 1294-1296
100. Nash D., Magder L., Lustberg M., et al. Blood lead blood pressure, and hypertension in perimenopausal and postmenopausal women. JAMA 289 12 (2003) 1523-1532
101. Wainwright A.P., Kox W.J., and House I.M. Clinical features and therapy of acute thallium poisoning. Q J Med 69 (1988) 939-944
102. IRPTC: United Nations Environment Programme, International Register of Potentially Toxic Chemicals. Series "Scientific Reviews of Soviet Literature on Toxicity and Hazards of Chemicals". No. 69: Cadmium, Centre of International Projects (1984), GKNT, Moscow, Russia
103. Chen C.J., Hsueh Y.M., and Lai M.S. Increased prevalence of hypertension and long-term arsenic exposure. Hypertension 25 (1995) 53-60
104. Newall C.A., Anderson L.A., and Phillipson J.D. Herbal medicines: a guide for healthcare professionals (1996), Pharmaceutical Press, London, England
105. Haller C.A., and Benowitz N.L. Adverse cardiovascular and central nervous system events associated with dietary supplements containing ephedra alkaloids. N Engl J Med 343 25 (2000) 1833-1838
106. AMA: AMA Division of Drugs and Toxicology: Drug Evaluations Annual 1995 (1995), American Medical Association, Chicago, IL
107. Product information: vesanoid(R), tretinoin (2004), Roche Laboratories, Nutley, NJ
108. Product information: ferrlecit(R), sodium ferric gluconate complex in sucrose injection (2004), Whatson Pharma, Inc., Corona, CA
109. Saadeh A.M., Farsakh N.A., and al-Ali MK. Cardiac manifestations of acute carbamate and organophosphate poisoning. Heart 77 (1997) 461-464
110. Sofer S., Shalev H., and Weizman Z. Acute pancreatitis in children following envenomation by the yellow scorpion Leiurus quinquestriatus. Toxicon 29 (1991) 125-128
111. Reich D.L., and Silvay G. Ketamine: an update on the first twenty-five years of clinical experience. Can J Anaesth 36 (1989) 186-197
112. Cohen M.R., Cohen R.M., Pickar D., et al. High dose naloxone infusions in normals. Dose dependent behavioural hormonal and physiological responses. Arch Gen Psychiatry 40 (1983) 613-619
113. Zaloga G.P., Chernow B., Zajtchuk R., et al. Diagnostic dosages of protirelin (TRH) elevate BP by noncatecholamine mechanisms. Arch Intern Med 144 (1984) 1149-1152 [DE0978]
114. Kaplan NM, Izzo JL. Refractory Hypertension. Ch. C128 in Izzo JL and Black HR, ed. Hypertension Primer, Third Ed., American Heart Association, Dallax, Tx, p 382.
115. Cushing H. Some experimental and clinical observations concerning states of increased intracranial tension. The Mutter Lecture, 1901. Am J Med Sci 124 (1902) 375-400
116. Plets C. Arterial hypertension in neurosurgical emergencies. Am J Cardiol 63 (1989) 40C-42C
117. Simard J.M., and Bellefleur M. Systemic arterial hypertension in head trauma. Am J Cardiol 63 (1989) 32C-35C
118. Stuart G.G., Merry G.S., Smith J.A., et al. Severe head injury managed without intracranial pressure monitoring. J Neurosurg 59 (1983) 601-605
119. Van Aken H., Cottrell J.E., Anger C., et al. Treatment of intraoperative hypertensive emergencies in patients with intracranial disease. Am J Cardiol 63 (1989) 43C-47C
120. Pallini R., Lauretti L., and Fernandez E. Chronic arterial hypertension as unique symptom of brainstem astrocytoma. Lancet 345 (1995) 1473-1574
121. Mathias C.J. Role of the central nervous system in human secondary hypertension. J Cardiovasc Pharm 10 Suppl 12 (1987) S93-S99
122. Bell G.M., and Doig A. Hypertension and intracranial tumor. In: Robertson J.I.S. (Ed). Handbook of hypertension, vol 2: clinical aspects of secondary hypertension (1983), Elsevier, Amsterdam 291-303
123. Bell G.M. Intracranial disorders and hypertension. In: Laragh J.H., and Brenner B.M. (Eds). Hypertension: pathophysiology, diagnosis, and management (1990), Raven Press, New York 703-709
124. Krum H., Louis W.J., Brow D.J., et al. Pressor dose responses and baroreflex sensitivity in quadriplegic spinal cord injury patients. J Hypertens 10 (1992) 245-250
125. Mathias C.J., and Frankel H.L. Autonomic failure in tetraplegia. In: Bannister R. (Ed). Autonomic failure: a textbook of clinical disorders of the autonomic nervous system (1983), Oxford University Press, Oxford 453-488
126. Mathias C.J., Christensen N.J., Corbett J.L., et al. Plasma catecholamines during paroxysmal neurogenic hypertension in quadriplegic man. Circ Res 9 (1976) 204-208
127. Ventura H.O., Messerli F.H., and Barron R.E. Norepinephrine-induced hypertension in Guillain-Barre syndrome. Hypertension 4 (1986) 265-267
128. Davies A.G., and Dingle H.R. Observations on cardiovascular and neuroendocrine disturbance in the Guillain-Barre syndrome. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 35 (1972) 176-179
129. Pfeiffer G., Schiller B., Kruse J., et al. Indicators of dysautonomia in severe Guillain-Barre syndrome. J Neurol 246 (1999) 1015-1022
130. Shannon J.R., Jordan J., Diedrich A., et al. Sympathetically mediated hypertension in autonomic failure. Circulation 101 (2000) 2710-2715
131. Bradbury S., and Eggleston C. Postural hypotension: a report of three cases. Am Heart J 1 (1925) 73-86
132. Shy G.M., and Drager G.A. A neurological syndrome associated with orthostatic hypotension. Arch Neurol 2 (1960) 511-527
133. Axelrod F.B., Iyer K., Fish I., et al. Progressive sensory loss in familial dysautonomia. Pediatrics 67 (1981) 517-522
134. Shannon J.R., Jordan J., Costa F., et al. The hypertension of autonomic failure and its treatment. Hypertension 30 (1997) 1062-1067
135. Cryer P.E. Disorders of sympathetic neural function in human diabetes mellitus: hypoadrenergic and hyperadrenergic postural hypotension. Metabolism 29 (1980) 1186-1189
136. Kyle R.A., Kottke B.A., and Schirger A. Orthostatic hypotension as a clue to primary systemic amyloidosis. Circulation 34 (1966) 883-888
137. Vagaonescu T., Saadia D., Tuhrim S., et al. Hypertensive cardiovascular damage in patients with primary autonomic failure. Lancet 355 (2000) 725-726
138. Shannon J.R., Robertson R.M., and Biaggioni I. Treatment of hypertension in autonomic failure [Abstract]. Circulation 94 Suppl 1 (1996) 2676
139. Peppard P.E., Young T., Palta M., et al. Prospective study of the association between sleep-disordered breathing and hypertension. N Engl J Med 342 (2000) 1378-1384
140. Caples S.M., Gami A.S., and Somers V.K. Obstructive sleep apnea. Ann Intern Med 142 (2005) 187-197
141. Fletcher E.C. Sympathetic over activity in the etiology of hypertension of obstructive sleep apnea. Sleep 26 (2003) 15-19
142. Ziegler M.G., Mills P.J., Loredo J.S., et al. Effect of continuous positive airway pressure and placebo treatment on sympathetic nervous activity in patients with obstructive sleep apnea. Chest 120 (2001) 887-893
143. Shamsuzzaman A.S., Winnicki M., Lanfranchi P., et al. Elevated C-reactive protein in patients with obstructive sleep apnea. Circulation 105 (2002) 2462-2464
144. Punjabi N.M., Sorkin J.D., Katzel L.I., et al. Sleep-disordered breathing and insulin resistance in middle-aged and overweight men. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 165 (2002) 677-682
145. Phillips B.G., Narkiewicz K., Pesek C.A., et al. Effects of obstructive sleep apnea on endothelin-1 and blood pressure. J Hypertens 17 (1999) 61-66
146. Zonato A.I., Martinho F.L., Bittencourt L.R., et al. Head and neck physical examination: comparison between nonapneic and obstructive sleep apnea patients. Laryngoscope 115 (2005) 1030-1034
147. Smith P.L., Gold A.R., Meyers D.A., et al. Weight loss in mildly to moderately obese patients with obstructive sleep apnea. Ann Intern Med 103 (1985) 850-855
148. Unterberg C., Luthje L., Szych J., et al. Atrial overdrive pacing compared to CPAP in patients with obstructive sleep apnoea syndrome. Eur Heart J 26 (2005) 2568-2575
149. Pepin J.L., Krieger J., Rodenstein D., et al. Effective compliance during the first 3 months of continuous positive airway pressure. A European prospective study of 121 patients. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 160 (1999) 1124-1129
150. Hoekema A., de Lange J., Stegenga B., et al. Oral appliances and maxillomandibular advancement surgery: an alternative treatment protocol for the obstructive sleep apnea-hypopnea syndrome. J Oral Maxillofac Surg 64 (2006) 886-891
151. Simantirakis E.N., Schiza S.E., Chrysostomakis S.I., et al. Atrial overdrive pacing for the obstructive sleep apnea-hypopnea syndrome. N Engl J Med 353 (2005) 2568-2577
152. Blanco J., Zamarron C., Abeleira Pazos M.T., et al. Prospective evaluation of an oral appliance in the treatment of obstructive sleep apnea syndrome. Sleep Breath 9 (2005) 20-25
153. Sanner B.M., Tepel M., Markmann A., et al. Effect of continuous positive airway pressure therapy on 24-hour blood pressure in patients with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome. Am J Hypertens 15 (2002) 251-257
154. Gotsopoulos H., Kelly J.J., and Cistulli P.A. Oral appliance therapy reduces blood pressure in obstructive sleep apnea: a randomized, controlled trial. Sleep 27 (2004) 934-941
155. Aggarwal M., and Khan I.A. Hypertensive crisis: hypertensive emergencies and urgencies. Cardiol Clin 24 (2006) 135-146
156. Haas C.E., and LeBlanc J.M. Acute postoperative hypertension: a review of therapeutic options. Am J Health Syst Pharm 61 (2004) 1661-1673
157. Roberts A.J., Niarchos A.P., Subramanian V.A., et al. Systemic hypertension associated with coronary artery bypass surgery: predisposing factors, hemodynamic characteristics, humoral profile, and treatment. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 74 (1977) 846-859
158. Wallach R., Karp R.B., Reves J.G., et al. Pathogenesis of paroxysmal hypertension developing during and after coronary bypass surgery: a study of hemodynamic and humoral factors. Am J Cardiol 46 (1980) 559-565
159. Weinstein G.S., Zabetakis P.M., Clavel A., et al. The renin-angiotensin system is not responsible for hypertension following coronary artery bypass grafting. Ann Thorac Surg 43 (1987) 74-77
160. Watts R.A., and Hoffbrand B.I. Hypertension following renal trauma. J Hum Hypertens 1 (1987) 65-71
161. Montgomery R.C., Richardson J.D., and Harty J.I. Posttraumatic renovascular hypertension after occult renal injury. J Trauma 45 (1998) 106-110
162. Worck R.H., Staahltoft D., Jonassen T.E., et al. Brain angiotensin receptors and sympathoadrenal regulation during insulin-induced hypoglycemia. Am J Physiol 280 (2001) R1162-R1168
163. Hilsted J., Bonde-Petersen F., Norgaard M.B., et al. Haemodynamic changes in insulin-induced hypoglycaemia in normal man. Diabetologia 26 (1984) 328-332
164. Fisher B.M., Gillen G., Dargie H.J., et al. The effects of insulin-induced hypoglycaemia on cardiovascular function in normal man: studies using radionuclide ventriculography. Diabetologia 30 (1987) 841-845
165. Trevisan L.A., Boutros N., Petrakis I.L., et al. Complications of alcohol withdrawal: pathophysiological insights. Alcohol Health Res World 22 (1998) 61-66
166. Ledgerwood A.M., and Lucas C.E. Postresuscitation hypertension: etiology, morbidity, and treatment. Arch Surg 108 (1974) 531-538
167. Et-Taouil K., Safar M., and Plante G.E. Mechanisms and consequences of large artery rigidity. Can J Physiol Pharmacol 81 3 (Mar 2003) 205-211
168. Beltran A., McVeigh G., Morgan D., et al. Arterial compliance abnormalities in isolated systolic hypertension. Am J Hypertens 14 10 (Oct 2001) 1007-1011
169. SHEP Cooperative Research Group. Preventing stroke by antihypertensive drug treatment in old persons with isolated systolic hypertension: final results of the Systolic Hypertension in the Elderly Program (SHEP). JAMA 265 24 (Jun 26 1991) 3255-3264
170. Brickner M.E., Hillis L.D., and Lange R.A. Congenital heart disease in adults. First of two parts. N Engl J Med 342 4 (Jan 27 2000) 256-263
171. Shih M.C., Tholpady A., Kramer C.M., et al. Surgical and endovascular repair of aortic coarctation: normal findings and appearance of complications on CT angiography and MR angiography. Am J Roentgenol 187 3 (Sep 2006) W302-W312
172. Hoimyr H., Christensen T.D., Emmertsen K., et al. Surgical repair of coarctation of the aorta: up to 40 years of follow-up. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 30 6 (Dec 2006) 910-916
173. Zhang J., Meikle S., and Trumble A. Severe maternal morbidity associated with hypertensive disorders in pregnancy in the United States. Hypertens Pregnancy 22 2 (2003) 203-212
174. Garovic V.D. Hypertension in pregnancy: diagnosis and treatment. Mayo Clin Proc 75 10 (Oct 2000) 1071-1076
175. Aronow W.S., and Weiss M.B. Aortic valve disease in the elderly. In: Aronow W.S., and Fleg J.L. (Eds). Cardiovascular disease in the elderly. Third edition (2004), Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York City 417-442
176. Wattanasirichaigoon S., and Pomposelli Jr. F.B. Branham's sign is an exaggerated Bezold-Jarisch reflex of arteriovenous fistula. J Vasc Surg 26 (1997) 171-172
177. Aronow W.S. The heart and thyroid disease. In: Gambert S. (Ed). Clinics in geriatric medicine-thyroid disease (1995), WB Saunders, Philadelphia 219-229
178. Julius S., and Majahalme S. The changing face of sympathetic overactivity in hypertension. Ann Med 32 (2000) 365-370