Taking the "garbage" out in Tulia, Texas: The taboo on black-white romance and racial profiling in the "war on drugs"

Wisconsin Law Review

Volumn 2007, Issue 2, 2007, Pages 283-318

  Johnson, Kevin R ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^b Department of Public Interest Law and Chicana/o Studies ^*

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 38049113385     PISSN: 0043650X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (317)

1. NATE BLAKESLEE, TULIA: RACE, COCAINE, AND CORRUPTION IN A SMALL TEXAS TOWN 195 (2005) (quoting Gary Gardner, a Tulia citizen).
2. See id. at 401-04.
3. See id. at 9, 17-18.
4. See id. at 399.
5. Vanita Gupta, Critical Race Lawyering in Tulia, Texas, 73 FORDHAM L. REV. 2055, 2061 (2005).
6. See BLAKESLEE, supra note 1, at 241-44.
7. See id. at 247, 281-82.
8. See David Garrow, Presumed Guilty: A Reporter's Sorry Tale of an Out-of-Control Texas Drug Sting, 31 MONT. LAW. 9, 10 (2006) ("Blakeslee[] . . . suggests that there are more Tulias than there are lawyers dedicated enough to expose them."); see also infra notes 88-89 and accompanying text.
9. 388 U.S. 1 (1967).
10. See, e.g., Hudson v. Michigan, 126 S. Ct. 2159 (2006) (holding that the police's failure to knock and announce does not require the exclusion of evidence); Illinois v. Caballes, 543 U.S. 405 (2005) (ruling that the use of a dog to sniff for drugs during an ordinary traffic stop did not violate the Fourth Amendment); United States v. Flores-Montano, 541 U.S. 149 (2004) (allowing fuel-tank searches at the border despite the lack of reasonable suspicion of criminal activity); United States v. Arvizu, 534 U.S. 266 (2002) (holding that it is permissible to search a vehicle for drugs even though the law-enforcement officers relied on certain factors that alone were insufficient to justify the stop); Illinois v. Wardlow, 528 U.S. 119 (2000) (finding that flight from the police could be a factor justifying a stop); Ohio v. Robinette, 519 U.S. 33 (1996) (ruling that the police need not inform people of their right to leave before securing consent to a search); Florida v. Bostick, 501 U.S. 429 (1991) (concluding that police officers in a drug interdiction effort could board buses and request searches of bags).
11. See Michael J. Klarman, The Racial Origins of Modern Criminal Procedure, 99 MICH. L. REV. 48, 64 (2000).
12. See Oren Gazal-Ayal, Partial Ban on Plea Bargains, 27 CARDOZO L. REV. 2295, 2333 n.124 (2006) (explaining that the eight defendants who went to trial were convicted and that the remaining defendants entered into plea bargains).
13. See, e.g., Sandra Guerra Thompson, Did the War on Drugs Die with the Birth of the War on Terrorism?: A Closer Look at Civil Forfeiture and Racial Profiling After 9/11, 14 FED. SENT'G REP. 147, 147 (2002).
14. See BLAKESLEE, supra note 1, at 195, 256-57.
15. See infra Part IV.A.1.
16. See BLAKESLEE, supra note 1, at 17-18.
17. Id. at 5.
18. See id. at 17-18. Coleman was the son of a well-known Texas Ranger. See id. at 95-97.
19. Gupta, supra note 5, at 2061.
20. Id. at 2059.
21. BLAKESLEE, supra note 1, at 5; Gupta, supra note 5, at 2059.
22. Gupta, supra note 5, at 2059.
23. Id.
24. Kristin E. Kruse, Comment, Proving Discriminatory Intent in Selective Prosecution Challenges - An Alternative Approach to United States v. Armstrong, 58 SMU L. REV. 1523, 1524 (2005) (footnotes omitted).
25. BLAKESLEE, supra note 1, at 100.
26. See id. at 241-44.
27. See id. at 399.
28. Id. at 400.
29. Steve Barnes, Ex-Narcotics Agent Gets 10 Years' Probation, N.Y. TIMES, Jan. 19, 2005, at A14.
30. OPEN SOC'Y POLICY CTR., TULIA: TIP OF THE DRUG WAR ICEBERG 9 (2005), http://soros.org/resources/articles_publications/publications/ tulia_20050101/tulia.pdf.
31. See id.
32. See Kathleen R. Sandy, Comment, The Discrimination Inherent in America's Drug War: Hidden Racism Revealed by Examining the Hysteria Over Crack, 54 ALA. L. REV. 665, 665-73 (2003).
33. See Judy Mann, Money Spent on Drug War Could Be Put to Better Use, WASH. POST, Oct. 17, 2001, at C12.
34. See BLAKESLEE, supra note 1, at 201-13.
35. See id.
36. Id. at 6.
37. Gupta, supra note 5, at 2059.
38. OPEN SOC'Y POLICY CTR., supra note 30, at 7.
39. See BLAKESLEE, supra note 1, at 68, 187.
40. See OPEN SOC'Y POLICY CTR., supra note 30, at 7.
41. See generally NEIL FOLEY, THE WHITE SCOURGE: MEXICANS, BLACKS, AND POOR WHITES IN TEXAS COTTON CULTURE (1997) (studying the complex history of race and class relations in Texas);
42. DAVID MONTEJANO, ANGLOS AND MEXICANS IN THE MAKING OF TEXAS, 1836-1986 (1987) (analyzing the history of racial tensions in Texas).
43. See BLAKESLEE, supra note 1, at app.
44. Id. at 194. It is telling, but entirely consistent with the argument presented in this Article, that Thelma Johnson, an African American, assumed that her daughter's marriage prospects were limited to black men. Cf. infra Part III.A (analyzing the disfavor of black-white intimate relationships in modern U.S. social life).
45. See Brian Narvaez, Comment, Texas Reacts to Tulia and the Drug War's Persecution of Minorities, 28 T. MARSHALL L. REV. 317, 319-20 (2003) (contending that the Tulia incident directly stemmed from the war on drugs).
46. See BLAKESLEE, supra note 1, at 182-84.
47. See generally Debra Lyn Bassett, Ruralism, 88 IOWA L. REV. 273 (2003) (analyzing negative stereotypes in the United States about rural people).
48. Ellis Cose, The Lessons Tulia Teaches, NEWSWEEK, Dec. 19, 2005, at 44, 44.
49. See BLAKESLEE, supra note 1, at 61; Thomas Adock, A New York Lawyer Who Made a Name for Herself in Texas, N.Y. L.J., June 11, 2004, at 16.
50. BLAKESLEE, supra note 1, at 4.
51. See Gupta, supra note 5, at 2059.
52. See BLAKESLEE, supra note 1, at 4. After the Tulia arrests hit the New York Times, Cornyn ordered an investigation into Coleman's conduct. See Lee Hockstader, Texas to Review Tulia Drug Sting, WASH. POST, Aug. 28, 2002, at A2.
53. See BLAKESLEE, supra note 1, at 97.
54. See Gupta, supra note 5, at 2060.
55. See id. at 2061.
56. See BLAKESLEE, supra note 1, at 88-89, 340.
57. Id. at 329. Despite their innocence, a majority of the Tulia defendants entered into guilty pleas in hopes of avoiding a harsh sentence. See id. at app. 409-17.
58. See BLAKESLEE, supra note 1, at 138.
59. See id. at 144-47. In connection with a previous arrest, Brookins' father had called the sheriff to complain about the officers' rough treatment of his son. See id. at 146-47. Swisher County Sheriff Larry Stewart expressed strong negative opinions about the younger Brookins' conduct, even though the two families had known each other for many years. See id. at 142, 146-47.
60. See id. at 149.
61. See Gupta, supra note 5, at 2060-61.
62. See id.
63. See id.
64. See BLAKESLEE, supra note 1, at 155.
65. See id. at 156.
66. See id.
67. Id.
68. See BLAKESLEE, supra note 1, at 157.
69. See Brookins v. State, No. 07-00-0159-CR, 2001 WL 246581 (Tex. Ct. App. Mar. 13, 2001). Some of the other Tulia defendants also unsuccessfully appealed their convictions. See, e.g., Jackson v. State, Nos. 07-00-0074-CR, 07-00-0075-CR, 07-00-0076-CR, 2000 Tex. App. LEXIS 7834 (Tex. Ct. App. Nov. 16, 2000).
70. See BLAKESLEE, supra note 1, app. at 411.
71. See id. at 241-44. The daughter of Indian immigrants, Gupta had worked on a capital case involving an African American defendant in Texas in a clinical program as a law student at New York University School of Law. See id. at 242-44.
72. See Blakeslee, supra note 1, at 281-313.
73. See id. at 294-97.
74. See id. at 162-63, 295, 332-33, 358-60.
75. See id. at 295, 300-01, 305.
76. See id at 300-09.
77. See id. at 273 (discussing the New York Times' attention to the case).
78. See id. at 281.
79. See id. at 314-87.
80. See id. app. at 409-10.
81. See id. at 273-74.
82. Gupta, supra note 5, at 2069-71. For a summary of the critical-lawyering literature that focuses on the attorney's collaboration with clients in providing legal representation, see Kevin R. Johnson, Lawyering for Social Change: What's a Lawyer to Do?, 5 MICH. J. RACE & L. 201, 222-23 (1999);
83. Eric K. Yamamoto, Critical Race Praxis: Race Theory and Political Lawyering Practice in Post-Civil Rights America, 95 MICH. L. REV. 821 (1997);
84. GERALD L. LÓPEZ, REBELLIOUS LAWYERING: ONE CHICANO'S VISION OF PROGRESSIVE LAW PRACTICE (1992);
85. Anthony V. Alfieri, Reconstructive Poverty Law Practice: Learning Lessons of Client Narrative, 100 YALE L.J. 2107 (1991);
86. Lucie E. White, Mobilization on the Margins of the Lawsuit: Making Space for Clients to Speak, 16 N.Y.U. REV. L. & SOC. CHANGE 535 (1988).
87. See BLAKESLEE, supra note 1, at 183-86.
88. See William M. Carter, Jr., A Thirteenth Amendment Framework for Combating Racial Profiling, 39 HARV. C.R.-C.L. L. REV. 17, 56-57 (2004) ("The continuing stigma of criminality because one is African American is . . . pervasive . . . .").
89. See generally Frank Rudy Cooper, Against Bipolar Black Masculinity: Intersectionality, Assimilation, Identity Performance, and Hierarchy, 39 U.C. DAVIS L. REV. 853 (2006) (analyzing extreme stereotypes of African American men);
90. Jerry Kang, Trojan Horses of Race, 118 HARV. L. REV. 1489 (2005) (analyzing how implicit biases against racial minorities affect law and policy, including criminal law);
91. Richard Delgado & Jean Stefancic, Images of the Outsider in American Law and Culture: Can Free Expression Remedy Systemic Social Ills?, 77 CORNELL L. REV. 1258, 1261-67 (1992) (reviewing the prevailing stereotypes of African Americans).
92. See BLAKESLEE, supra note 1, at 194-98.
93. See id. at 184, 215, 221.
94. See infra notes 103-04 and accompanying text (discussing the history of lynching in the United States).
95. See Gupta, supra note 5, at 2069-71.
96. See, e.g., Bob Herbert, A Good Day, N.Y. TIMES, June 19, 2003, at A25;
97. Bob Herbert, Partway to Freedom, N.Y. TIMES, June 16, 2003, at A19;
98. Bob Herbert, The Tulia Story Isn't Over, N.Y. TIMES, Apr. 28, 2003, at A23;
99. Bob Herbert, The Latest from Tulia, N.Y. TIMES, Dec. 26, 2002, at A39;
100. Bob Herbert, A Confused Inquiry, N.Y. TIMES, Aug. 22, 2002, at A23;
101. Bob Herbert, Justice Goes Into Hiding, N.Y. TIMES, Aug. 12, 2002, at A15;
102. Bob Herbert, Railroaded in Texas, N.Y. TIMES, Aug. 8, 2002, at A25;
103. Bob Herbert, Tulia's Shattered Lives, N.Y. TIMES, Aug. 5, 2002, at A15;
104. Bob Herbert, "Lawman of the Year," N.Y. TIMES, Aug. 1, 2002, at A25;
105. Bob Herbert, Kafka in Tulia, N.Y. TIMES, July 29, 2002, at A19.
106. Herbert, an African American journalist, republished many of his editorials about the Tulia case in BOB HERBERT, PROMISES BETRAYED: WAKING UP FROM THE AMERICAN DREAM (2005).
107. Even the much-watched television news show 60 Minutes featured the case, with the late Ed Bradley reporting. See 60 Minutes: Targeted in Tulia, Texas? (CBS television broadcast Sept. 26, 2003).
108. See Kevin R. Johnson, The End of "Civil Rights" as We Know It?: Immigration and Civil Rights in the New Millennium, 49 UCLA L. REV. 1481, 1482 & n.1 (2002) (analyzing the changing racial demographics in the United States).
109. See NATHAN GLAZER, WE ARE ALL MULTICULTURALISTS NOW (1998) (analyzing the emerging national commitment to multiculturalism).
110. See generally C. VANN WOODWARD & WILLIAM S. MCFEELY, THE STRANGE CAREER OF JIM CROW (2001) (chronicling the rise and fall of Jim Crow).
111. See Kevin R. Johnson, The Legacy of Jim Crow: The Enduring Taboo of Black-White Romance, 84 TEX. L. REV. 739, 755 (2006) (book review).
112. See, e.g., Jim Chen, Unloving, 80 IOWA L. REV. 145, 171-72 (1994) (envisioning the United States as a "Creole Republic" without limits - self-imposed or otherwise - on intermarriage);
113. Ely Portillo & Frank Greve, Interracial Tide Sweeps Nation, ORLANDO SENTINEL, July 23, 2006, at A26 ("A powerful interracial tide has transformed friendships, dates, cohabitations, marriages, and adoptions in just one generation. If the wave continues to grow, it could sweep away racial stereotypes and categorizations . . . .");
114. Michael A. Fletcher, Interracial Marriages Eroding Barriers, WASH. POST, Dec. 29, 1998, at A1 (seeing increased intermarriage as dampening the feared balkanization of racial groups in United States);
115. see also Kim Forde-Mazrui, Live and Let Love: Determination in Matters of Intimacy and Identity, 101 MICH. L. REV. 2185, 2190 (2003)
116. (reviewing RANDALL KENNEDY, INTERRACIAL INTIMACIES: SEX, MARRIAGE, IDENTITY, AND ADOPTION (2003)) (finding Professor Randall Kennedy to be optimistic about the nation's racial future in light of the increase in interracial marriages over the last fifty years).
117. See BLAKESLEE, supra note 1, at 195-98.
118. See A. Leon Higginbotham, Jr. & Barbara K. Kopytoff, Racial Purity and Interracial Sex in the Law of Colonial and Antebellum Virginia, 77 GEO. L.J. 1967, 1989-94 (1989) (studying the history of the regulation of interracial relationships in Virginia);
119. see also Pamela D. Bridgewater, Ain't I a Slave: Slavery, Reproductive Abuse, and Reparations, 14 UCLA WOMEN'S L.J. 89, 115-25 (2005) (summarizing the history of the sexual abuse of African American slave women).
120. See generally ANNETTE GORDON-REED, THOMAS JEFFERSON AND SALLY HEMINGS: AN AMERICAN CONTROVERSY (1997) (analyzing the evidence of an intimate relationship between Thomas Jefferson and his slave, Sally Hemings).
121. See, e.g., ESSIE MAE WASHINGTON- WILLIAMS & WILLIAM STADIEM, DEAR SENATOR: A MEMOIR BY THE DAUGHTER OF STROM THURMOND (2005) (offering an autobiographical account by the daughter of late U.S. Senator Strom Thurmond).
122. See Note, Constitutionality of Anti-Miscegenation Statutes, 58 YALE L.J. 472, 472 app. (1949).
123. For a summary of the history of state antimiscegenation laws, see Mitchell F. Crusto, Blackness as Property: Sex, Race, Status, and Wealth, 1 STAN. J. C.R. & C.L. 51, 82-99 (2005).
124. See Loving v. Virginia, 388 U.S. 1, 6 & n.6 (1967).
125. 347 U.S. 483 (1954).
126. See Loving, 388 U.S. at 11 ("The fact that Virginia prohibits only interracial marriages involving white persons demonstrates that the racial classifications must stand on their own justification, as measures designed to maintain White Supremacy."); see also Richard Delgado, The Current Landscape of Race: Old Targets, New Opportunities, 104 MICH. L. REV. 1269, 1281 n.49 (2006) (book review) ("[Loving is] [t]he only Supreme Court decision to confront white supremacy and privilege."). Although they discouraged interracial marriage, law and custom in the Jim Crow era encouraged same-race marriages; married women were generally ineligible for public benefits and more marriages meant fewer obligations on the state to provide public benefits to poor women.
127. See Angela Onwuachi-Willig, The Return of the Ring: Welfare Reform's Marriage Cure as the Revival of Post-Bellum Control, 93 CAL. L. REV. 1647, 1657-59 (2005). Nonetheless, African American marriage rates today lag behind those of other racial groups.
128. See R. Richard Banks & Su Jin Gatlin, African American Intimacy: The Racial Gap in Marriage, 11 MICH. J. RACE & L. 115 (2005).
129. Emily Field Van Tassel, "Only the Law Would Rule Between Us": Antimiscegenation, the Moral Economy of Dependency, and the Debate Over Rights After the Civil War, 70 CHI.-KENT L. REV. 873, 895 (1995);
130. see Daniel J. Sharfstein, Crossing the Color Line: Racial Migration and the One Drop Rule, 1600-1860, 91 MINN. L. REV. 592, 594 (2007) ("Ideologies of racial purity and pollution are as old as America, and so is interracial mixing.").
131. See Margaret M. Russell, Reopening the Emmett Till Case: Lessons and Challenges for Critical Race Practice, 73 FORDHAM L. REV. 2101, 2110-13.
132. See generally 9 RACE, LAW, AND AMERICAN HISTORY 1700-1990, at vii-viii (Paul Finkelmen ed., 1992);
133. SHERRILYN A. IFILL, ON THE COURTHOUSE LAWN: CONFRONTING THE LEGACY OF LYNCHING IN THE TWENTY-F IRST CENTURY, at x(2007);
134. David Garland, Penal Excess and Surplus Meaning: Public Torture Lynchings in Twentieth-Century America, 39 LAW & SOC'Y REV. 793, 801-03 (2005).
135. For much of the twentieth century, efforts to pass federal antilynching legislation repeatedly failed as southern politicians invoked the rhetoric of states' rights to halt congressional action. See, e.g., Barbara Holden-Smith, Lynching, Federalism, and the Intersection of Race and Gender in the Progressive Era, 8 YALE J.L. & FEMINISM 31, 42-59 (1996);
136. see also ROBERT L. ZANGREDO, THE NAACP CRUSADE AGAINST LYNCHING, 1909-1950 (1980). In 2005, the U.S. Senate passed a resolution apologizing to the victims of lynchings and their descendants. See S. Res. 39, 109th Cong. (2005).
137. See Russell, supra note 103, at 2102-03 (analyzing law-enforcement agencies' decision to reopen the Till investigation). See generally FROM LYNCH MOBS TO THE KILLING STATE: RACE AND THE DEATH PENALTY IN AMERICA (Charles J. Ogletree Jr. & Austin Sarat eds., 2006) (examining the emergence of the modern death penalty out of the history of lynching);
138. STEPHEN J. WHITFIELD, A DEATH IN THE DELTA: THE STORY OF EMMETT TILL (1988) (recounting the events surrounding Till's lynching).
139. See, e.g., supra note 94 and accompanying text (discussing the theory that the increased rate of interracial marriage may lead to an overall improvement in racial relations).
140. See, e.g., BLAKESLEE, supra note 1, at 194-98 (discussing Tulia residents' views about interracial relationships).
141. See, e.g., DOUGLAS S. MASSEY & NANCY A. DENTON, AMERICAN APARTHEID: SEGREGATION AND THE MAKING OF THE UNDERCLASS 9 (1993) ("Our fundamental argument is that racial segregation - and its characteristic institutional form, the black ghetto - are the key structural factors responsible for the perpetuation of black poverty in the United States.").
142. See generally Michael Selmi, Race in the City: The Triumph of Diversity and the Loss of Integration, 22 J.L. & POL. 49 (2006) (analyzing the increasing diversity and residential segregation in U.S. cities);
143. SHERYLL CASHIN, THE FAILURES OF INTEGRATION: HOW RACE AND CLASS ARE UNDERMINING THE AMERICAN DREAM (2004) (analyzing the persistence of segregation in American social life);
144. ANDREW HACKER, TWO NATIONS: BLACK AND WHITE, SEPARATE, HOSTILE, UNEQUAL (1992) (documenting prevalent segregation in American social life);
145. JAMES W. LOEWEN, SUNDOWN TOWNS: A HIDDEN DIMENSION OF AMERICAN RACISM (2005) (recounting the rise in the United States of many "sundown towns," where African Americans could not leave their homes after dark).
146. See supra notes 106-07 and accompanying text.
147. See Kevin R. Johnson & Kristina L. Burrows, Struck by Lightning? Interracial Intimacy and Racial Justice, 25 HUM. RTS. Q. 528, 530 (2003) (book review).
148. See id.
149. See GARY ORFIELD & CHUNGMEI LEE, C.R. PROJECT, RACIAL TRANSFORMATION AND THE CHANGING NATURE OF SEGREGATION 11 (2006) ("At the aggregate level, Asians are the most integrated racial group in American public schools . . . .").
150. See MIXED RACE AMERICA AND THE LAW: A READER 469 tbl.1 (Kevin R. Johnson ed., 2003).
151. See RACHEL F. MORAN, INTERRACIAL INTIMACY: THE REGULATION OF RACE AND ROMANCE 6 (2001)
152. (citing Hearings on Federal Measures of Race and Ethnicity and the Implications for the 2000 Census Before the Subcomm. on Government Management, Information, and Technology of the H. Comm. On Government Reform and Oversight, 105th Cong. 444 (1997) (prepared statement of Mary C. Waters, Professor of Sociology, Harvard University));
153. see also MIXED RACE AMERICA AND THE LAW: A READER, supra note 112, at 469 tbl.1 (compiling data from a study projecting that, from 1995 to 2050, only 8 percent of whites and 10 percent of African Americans will marry people of a different racial group).
154. KENNEDY, supra note 94, at 127 (footnote omitted).
155. See MIXED RACE AMERICA AND THE LAW: A READER, supra note 112, at 469 tbl.1;
156. see also Kara Joyner & Grace Kao, Interracial Relationships and the Transition to Adulthood, 70 AM. SOC. REV. 563 (2005) (finding that the likelihood of a person's entering into an interracial relationship decreases with age and that interracial relationships are less likely to result in marriage).
157. See Charles R. Lawrence III, The Id, the Ego, and Equal Protection: Reckoning with Unconscious Racism, 39 STAN. L. REV. 317, 328-44 (1987);
158. see also Linda Hamilton Krieger, The Content of Our Categories: A Cognitive Bias Approach to Discrimination and Equal Employment Opportunity, 47 STAN. L. REV. 1161, 1186-88 (1995).
159. See Lawrence, supra note 116, at 328-44.
160. See generally R.A. Lenhardt, Understanding the Mark: Race, Stigma, and Equality in Context, 79 N.Y.U. L. REV. 803, 851-64 (2004) (exploring the stigma attached to African Americans in U.S. society);
161. Alex M. Johnson, Jr., Destabilizing Racial Classifications Based on Insights Gleaned from Trademark Law, 84 CAL. L. REV. 887, 916-18 (1996) (analyzing the importance of the dichotomous constructs of blackness and whiteness in the United States).
162. See supra note 83 and accompanying text.
163. See Angela Onwuachi-Willig, Undercover Other, 94 CAL. L. REV. 873, 900 (2006).
164. See, e.g., KENNEDY, supra note 94, at 109-23; Onwuachi-Willig, supra note 120, at 890-92.
165. See KENNEDY, supra note 94, at 109-23.
166. See Linda L. Ammons, Mules, Madonnas, Babies, Bathwater, Racial Imagery and Stereotypes: The African-American Woman and the Battered Woman Syndrome, 1995 WIS. L. REV. 1003, 1027 n.106
167. (citing Ronald Smothers, Vestiges of the Old South, N.Y. TIMES, Mar. 20, 1994, at D2).
168. Buchanan Aide Is Removed Over Mixed-Marriage View, N.Y. TIMES, Jan. 29, 1992, at A14.
169. Id. (quoting Rebecca Wilber, a witness to the statement).
170. See Elizabeth Becker et al., The 2000 Elections: State by State, N.Y. TIMES, Nov. 9, 2000, at B15.
171. See John Leo, No Escaping the Bob Jones Appearance, SAN DIEGO UNION-TRIB., Feb. 29, 2000, at B6;
172. Peter Schmidt, Caught in Crossfire of Presidential Campaign, Bob Jones U. Stands Firm, CHRON. HIGHER EDUC., Mar. 10, 2007, at A37.
173. See Parents' Note Needed for Interracial Dates, N.Y. TIMES, Mar. 8, 2000, at A20.
174. See Nation in Brief, WASH. POST, Aug. 31, 2004, at A15 (discussing the Kobe Bryant rape case).
175. See Adrienne P. Samuels, Race a Factor in Kidnap Case, Sheriff Says, BOSTON GLOBE, Sept. 19, 2006, at B1.
176. See Robin Toner, In Tight Senate Race, Attack Ad on Black Candidate Stirs Furor, N.Y. TIMES, Oct. 26, 2006, at A1;
177. Peter Wallsten, GOP Attack Ad Draws Heat for Racial Overtones, L.A. TIMES, Oct. 24, 2006, at A14.
178. See Johnson, supra note 93, at 744-49.
179. See Helen Bishop Jenkins, A Study of DNA Technology, Exhumation and Heirship Determination as it Relates to Modern-Day Descendants of Slaves in America, 50 ALA. L. REV. 39, 53-54 (1998).
180. See JUNE CROSS, SECRET DAUGHTER: A MIXED-RACE DAUGHTER AND THE MOTHER WHO GAVE HER AWAY 1-13 (2006).
181. See Moulin Christy, Coming Together "For Something Besides Hate," SPRINGHELD NEWS-LEADER (Mo.), July 30, 2001, at 1A.
182. See, e.g., Onwuachi-Willig, supra note 120, at 890-92. "Microaggressions" are "subtle, stunning, often automatic, and non-verbal exchanges which are 'put downs' of blacks . . . ." Peggy C. Davis, Law as Microaggression, 98 YALE L.J. 1559, 1565 (1989) (footnote omitted).
183. See Roger Ebert, Romantic Comedy Breaks "New" Ground, CHI. SUN TIMES, Feb. 3, 2006, at NC34 (reviewing SOMETHING NEW (Focus Features 2006));
184. Caryn James, When It Comes to Casting, Love Conquers Color, N.Y. TIMES, Mar. 31, 2005, at E1 (discussing GUESS WHO (Columbia Pictures 2005)).
185. In 1967, the groundbreaking movie Guess Who's Coming to Dinner, starring Sidney Poitier, Katherine Hepburn, and Spencer Tracy, GUESS WHO'S COMING TO DINNER (Columbia Pictures 1967), caused a stir in telling the story of a white woman bringing her black fiancé home to meet her parents.
186. See John G. Culhane, Uprooting the Arguments Against Same-Sex Marriage, 20 CARDOZO L. REV. 1119, 1170 n.242 (1999) (noting that, although the film was released the same year that the Supreme Court decided Loving, "the depth of the discomfort it captured was not extinguished by judicial proclamation"). Of course, sensibilities have changed so that today's depictions of interracial relationships do not provoke nearly as much controversy as they did in the past.
187. See Renee Graham, In Casting Film Couples, Race is Still a Black-and-White Issue, BOSTON GLOBE, Mar. 8, 2005, at C1.
188. For an analysis of the role of race in film casting decisions, see Angela Onwuachi-Willig, There's Just One Hitch, Will Smith: Examining Title VII, Race, and Casting Discrimination on the Fortieth Anniversary of Loving v. Virginia, 2007 WIS. L. REV. 319.
189. See KENNEDY, supra note 94, at 120-21.
190. See Johnson, supra note 93, at 749-54 (discussing Jack Johnson's criminal prosecution under federal law for transporting a white woman across state lines). See generally GEOFFREY C. WARD, UNFORGIVABLE BLACKNESS: THE RISE AND FALL OF JACK JOHNSON (2004).
191. See Dave Anderson, Woods Close to Another Letdown, N.Y. TIMES, Apr. 11, 2004, § 8, at 1;
192. Tiger's Temptation, HERALD SUN (Melbourne, Austl.), Dec. 9, 2003, at 81.
193. See Johnson, supra note 93, at 759-60.
194. See id.
195. See MORAN, supra note 113, at 103-05.
196. See KENNEDY, supra note 94, at 126-27.
197. See Robert J. Cottrol, Through a Glass Diversely: The O.J. Simpson Trial as Racial Rorschach Test, 67 U. COLO. L. REV. 909, 915 (1996).
198. See id. at 909-16.
199. See id. at 912.
200. See id. at 915-16. The Simpson case generated a lively academic response. See, e.g., Sherri L. Burr, O.J. as a Tale of 2 Operas: An Essay in Black and White, 68 UMKC L. REV. 705 (2000);
201. Devon W. Carbado, The Construction of O.J. Simpson as a Racial Victim, 32 HARV. C.R.-C.L. L. REV. 49 (1997);
202. Zanita E. Fenton, Domestic Violence in Black and White: Racialized Gender Stereotypes in Gender Violence, 8 COLUM. J. GENDER & L. 1 (1998).
203. See Samuel R. Gross et al., Exonerations in the United States, 1989 Through 2003, 95 J. CRIM. L. & CRIMINOLOGY 523, 547-48 (2005).
204. Id.
205. BLAKESLEE, supra note 1, at 195.
206. Id.
207. See id. at 197-98.
208. See id. at 195-96.
209. Id. at 195.
210. Id.
211. Id.
212. Id.
213. Id.
214. See id.
215. See id. at 194.
216. See id.
217. See Johnson, supra note 93, at 755-61; Richard Delgado, White Interests and Civil Rights Realism: Rodrigo's Bittersweet Epiphany, 101 MICH. L. REV. 1201, 1202 (2003) (alluding to the "strong social aversion to interracial marriage");
218. see also RICHARD DELGADO, JUSTICE AT WAR: CIVIL LIBERTIES AND CIVIL RIGHTS DURING TIMES OF CRISIS 92-104 (2003) (giving various explanations for the taboo).
219. See BLAKESLEE, supra note 1, at 156; supra notes 64-69 and accompanying text. This conduct runs afoul of the call for lawyers to work to promote racial harmony. See Bill Ong Hing, In the Interest of Racial Harmony: Revisiting the Lawyer's Duty to Work for the Common Good, 47 STAN. L. REV. 901, 917-22 (1995);
220. Liwen Mah, Comment, The Legal Profession Faces New Faces: How Lawyers' Professional Norms Should Change to Serve a Changing American Population, 93 CAL. L. REV. 1721, 1763-72 (2005).
221. Loving v. Virginia, 388 U.S. 1 (1967). In that case, a Virginia jury convicted Mildred Jeter, a black woman, and Richard Loving, a white man, and the court sentenced them to a year in jail, with the sentence suspended on the condition that they both leave the state for twenty-five years. See Loving, 388 U.S. at 2-3.
222. See id. at 11-12.
223. Eric Blumenson & Eva Nilsen, Policing for Profit: The Drug War's Hidden Economic Agenda, 65 U. CHI. L. REV. 35, 36-40 (1998).
224. See id.
225. See, e.g., David S. Broder, Clinton's Approval Rating Weakens, WASH. POST, Nov. 16, 1993, at A1.
226. See Cornell W. Clayton & J. Mitchell Pickerill, The Politics of Criminal Justice: How the New Right Regime Shaped the Rehnquist Court's Criminal Justice Jurisprudence, 94 GEO. L.J. 1385, 1406-11 (2006) (discussing President Clinton's emphasis on law and order in campaigns and as president).
227. See Pub. L. No. 103-322, 108 Stat. 1796 (1994) (codified as amended at 42 U.S.C. §§ 13701-14223 (2000)).
228. See Federal Death Penalty Act of 1994, Pub. L. No. 103-322, tit. VI, § 60002, 108 Stat. 1959 (codified at 18 U.S.C. § 3591(a)(1)-(2)(d) (2000)). Previous legislation had authorized the imposition of the death penalty on drug "kingpins." Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1988, Pub. L. No. 100-690, § 7001, 102 Stat. 4181, 4387 (codified at 21 U.S.C. § 848(e)).
229. See Blumenson & Nilsen, supra note 168, at 36-40 (summarizing the substantial resources that federal, state, and local governments devote to the war on drugs).
230. During the same time period, immigration and border enforcement - often viewed as necessary to fight crime, specifically the drug trade - increased as well. See Kevin R. Johnson, Open Borders?, 51 UCLA L. REV. 193, 221-24 (2003).
231. See Becky Pettit & Bruce Western, Mass Imprisonment and the Life Course: Race and Class Inequality in U.S. Incarceration, 69 AM. SOC. REV. 151, 151 (2004).
232. For an analysis of the costs to the black community associated with high rates of African American incarceration, see Dorothy E. Roberts, The Social and Moral Cost of Mass Incarceration in African American Communities, 56 STAN. L. REV. 1271 (2004).
233. See U.S. NAT'L INST. ON DRUG ABUSE, DRUG USE AMONG RACIAL/ ETHNIC MINORITIES 33 (3d ed. 2003).
234. See generally MICHAEL TONRY, MALIGN NEGLECT - RACE, CRIME, AND PUNISHMENT IN AMERICA 81-123 (1995) (discussing the racially disparate impact of the war on drugs);
235. Kenneth B. Nunn, Race, Crime and the Pool of Surplus Criminality: Or Why the "War on Drugs" Was a "War on Blacks," 6 J. GENDER RACE & JUST. 381 (2002) (analyzing the negative impact of the war on drugs on African Americans).
236. See Saeed Ahmed, Prejudice Cited in Meth Sting, ATLANTA J.-CONST., Apr. 6, 2006, at 4C;
237. Jay Bookman, Meth Sting Pointed at South Asians, ATLANTA J.-CONST., Oct. 13, 2005, at 15A.
238. See OPEN SOC'Y POLICY CTR., supra note 30, at 16-17 (discussing several narcotics task force scandals).
239. See Christopher Slobogin, Testifying: Police Perjury and What to Do About It, 67 U. COLO. L. REV. 1037, 1041-48 (1996). For example, Los Angeles police officer Mark Fuhrman, a key prosecution witness in the O.J. Simpson case, pled no contest to perjury charges, admitting that he lied when he testified that he had not used a specific racial epithet for over a decade.
240. See Alan Abrahamson, Fuhrman Enters Plea of No Contest to Perjury, L.A. TIMES, Oct. 3, 1996, at A1.
241. See William Spade, Jr., Beyond the 100:1 Ratio: Towards a Rational Cocaine Sentencing Policy, 38 ARIZ. L. REV. 1233, 1233-34 (1996) (discussing Federal Sentencing Guidelines that "provide[] the same punishment for someone who is convicted of possessing or distributing one gram of crack cocaine as for someone who is convicted of possessing or distributing one hundred grams of powder cocaine" (footnote omitted)).
242. See Symposium, The Rampart Scandal: Policing the Criminal Justice System, 34 LOY. L.A. L. REV. 537 (2001);
243. John M. Broder, Los Angeles Paying Victims $70 Million for Police Graft, N.Y. TIMES, Apr. 1, 2005, at A20 ("[The officers] were accused of framing some of their victims, robbing suspects and engaging in a pervasive pattern of brutality and other misconduct.").
244. See generally BLUE RIBBON RAMPART REVIEW PANEL, RAMPART RECONSIDERED: THE SEARCH FOR REAL REFORM SEVEN YEARS LATER (2006), http://www.lapdonline.org/home/pdf_view/ 32827 (analyzing years of reform efforts in the Rampart Division);
245. BD. OF INQUIRY INTO THE RAMPART AREA CORRUPTION INCIDENT, L.A. POLICE DEP'T, PUBLIC REPORT (2000), http://www.lapdonline.org/assets/pdf/ boi_pub.pdf (investigating the widespread corruption in the Rampart Division).
246. See, e.g., Nunn, supra note 178.
247. See, e.g., Ira Glasser, American Drug Laws: The New Jim Crow, 1999 Edward C. Sobota Lecture (Sept. 23, 1999), in 63 ALB. L. REV. 703 (2000);
248. William H. Buckman & John Lamberth, Challenging Racial Profiles: Attacking Jim Crow on the Interstate, CHAMPION, Sept./Oct. 1999, at 14;
249. Symposium, U.S. Drug Laws: The New Jim Crow?, 10 TEMP. POL. & CIV. RTS. L. REV. 303 (2001).
250. For an analysis of the historical and continuing influence of race in the criminal-justice system in the United States, see DAVID COLE, NO EQUAL JUSTICE: RACE AND CLASS IN THE AMERICAN CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM (1999);
251. RANDALL KENNEDY, RACE, CRIME, AND THE LAW (1998);
252. KATHERYN K. RUSSELL, THE COLOR OF CRIME: RACIAL HOAXES, WHITE FEAR, BLACK PROTECTIONISM, POLICE HARASSMENT, AND OTHER MACROAGGRESSIONS (1998).
253. See Morgan Cloud, Search and Seizure by the Numbers: The Drug Courier Profile and Judicial Review of Investigative Formulas, 65 B.U. L. REV. 843, 844-45 (1985). Courts have upheld the use of the drug-courier profile. See, e.g., United States v. Weaver, 966 F.2d 391 (8th Cir. 1992) (allowing law enforcement, in an instance in which the court found that police had particularized suspicion of wrongdoing, to rely on a drug-courier profile that included race); United States v. Malone, 886 F.2d 1162 (8th Cir. 1989) (affirming a conviction in a case in which Drug Enforcement Administration agents, besides having particularized suspicion of wrongdoing, suspected the defendant of being a drug courier in part because he fit the "L.A. gang-member" profile).
254. See, e.g., Malone, 866 F.2d at 1163; Daniel Ahn, Note & Comment, Profiling Culture: An Examination of Korean American Gangbangers in Southern California, 11 ASIAN L.J. 57, 59-60 (2004);
255. Suzin Kim, Note, Gangs and Law Enforcement: The Necessity of Limiting the Use of Gang Profiles, 5 B.U. PUB. INT. L.J. 265, 277-79 (1996);
256. Margaret M. Russell, Entering Great America: Reflections on Race and the Convergence of Progressive Legal Theory and Practice, 43 HASTINGS L.J. 749, 759-67 (1992).
257. See Anthony E. Mucchetti, Driving While Brown: A Proposal for Ending Racial Profiling in Emerging Latino Communities, 8 HARV. LATINO L. REV. 1 (2005);
258. Frank Rudy Cooper, The Un-Balanced Fourth Amendment: A Cultural Study of the Drug War, Racial Profiling and Arvizu, 47 VILL. L. REV. 851, 869-76 (2002); Russell, supra note 188, at 759-67;
259. see also R. Richard Banks, Beyond Profiling: Race, Policing, and the Drug War, 56 STAN. L. REV. 571, 575-76 (2003) (discussing studies showing disproportionate law-enforcement investigation of blacks and Latinos);
260. Albert W. Alschuler, Racial Profiling and the Constitution, 2002 U. CHI. LEGAL F. 163, 232 (analyzing data showing that the New York City Police Department "stopp[ed] and frisk[ed] blacks and Latinos at a far higher rate than whites");
261. Mary Romero, State Violence, and the Social and Legal Construction of Latino Criminality: From El Bandido to Gang Member, 78 DENV. U.L. REV. 1081, 1089-98 (2001) (analyzing the development of the stereotype of the Latino gang member).
262. See generally Floyd D. Weatherspoon, Racial Profiling of African-American Males: Stopped, Searched, and Stripped of Constitutional Protection, 38 J. MARSHALL L. REV. 439 (2004) (analyzing the impact of racial profiling on the African American community). In addition, police often over-rely on a victim's identification of a perpetrator's race.
263. See R. Richard Banks, Race-Based Suspect Selection and Colorblind Equal Protection Doctrine and Discourse, 48 UCLA L. REV. 1075 (2001); see also Brown v. City of Oneonta, 221 F.3d 329, 334 (2d Cir. 1999) (reviewing a claim in which local police attempted to talk with every African American in a small college town because a crime victim had reported that the perpetrator was black).
264. See Kevin R. Johnson, U.S. Border Enforcement: Drugs, Migrants, and the Rule of Law, 47 VILL. L. REV. 897, 902-03 (2002);
265. Lisa Walter, Comment, Eradicating Racial Stereotyping from Terry Stops: The Case for an Equal Protection Exclusionary Rule, 71 U. COLO. L. REV. 255, 258-66 (2000).
266. PETER VERNIERO & PAUL H. ZOUBEK, INTERIM REPORT OF THE STATE POLICE REVIEW TEAM REGARDING ALLEGATIONS OF RACIAL PROFILING 27 (1999), http://www.state.nj.us/lps/ intm_419.pdf.
267. See, e.g., David A. Harris, The Stories, the Statistics, and the Law: Why "Driving While Black" Matters, 84 MINN. L. REV. 265, 265-69 (1999);
268. Tracey Maclin, Race and the Fourth Amendment, 51 VAND. L. REV. 333, 342-54 (1998);
269. Floyd Weatherspoon, Ending Racial Profiling of African-Americans in the Selective Enforcement of Laws: In Search of Viable Remedies, 65 U. PITT. L. REV. 721, 724-25 (2004).
270. See, e.g., VERNIERO & ZOUBEK, supra note 191.
271. See, e.g., Anahad O'Connor & Adam Stone, Lawsuit Reveals Many Rifts in a Westchester Police Force, N.Y. TIMES, Feb. 7, 2006, at B4;
272. Richard Lezin Jones, Held for 7 Days, Man Says New Jersey Profiling Continues, N.Y. TIMES, Dec. 1, 2005, at B6.
273. See BLAKESLEE, supra note 1, at 182, 273-74.
274. See, e.g., Terry v. Ohio, 392 U.S. 1, 27 (1968) ("[I]n determining whether the officer acted reasonably . . . due weight must be given . . . to the specific reasonable inferences which he is entitled to draw from the facts in light of his experience."); United States v. Sokolow, 490 U.S. 1, 7 (1989) ("The officer . . . must be able to articulate something more than an 'inchoate and unparticularized suspicion or 'hunch.''" (quoting Terry, 392 U.S. at 27)).
275. See Walter, supra note 190, at 288-92.
276. Pettit & Western, supra note 176, at 151-52.
277. Id. at 151.
278. See Paul Butler, Racially Based Jury Nullification: Black Power in the Criminal Justice System, 105 YALE L.J. 677, 715 (1995) ("[I]n cases involving nonviolent, malum prohibitum offenses, . . . there should be a presumption in favor of nullification.").
279. See Illinois v. Wardlow, 528 U.S. 119, 132 (2000) (Stevens, J., dissenting) (discussing why an innocent member of a minority group might run from police officers); Devon Carbado, E(R)acing the Fourth Amendment, 100 MICH. L. REV. 946, 986 (2002) (mentioning black distrust of police);
280. David Harris, Law Enforcement's Stake in Coming to Grips with Racial Profiling, 3 RUTGERS RACE & L. REV. 9, 25-26 (2001) (to the same effect).
281. See Regina Austin, "The Black Community," Its Lawbreakers, and a Politics of Identification, 65 S. CAL. L. REV. 1769, 1776-87 (1992).
282. See Samuel R. Gross & Katherine Y. Barnes, Road Work: Racial Profiling and Drug Interdiction on the Highway, 101 MICH. L. REV. 651 (2002) (reviewing the statistical data on traffic stops and the costs and benefits of such stops).
283. See DAVID HARRIS, PROFILES IN INJUSTICE: WHY RACIAL PROFILING CANNOT WORK 126-28 (2002).
284. Katherine Y. Barnes, Assessing the Counterfactual: The Efficacy of Drug Interdiction Absent Racial Profiling, 54 DUKE L.J. 1089, 1140 (2005).
285. See Susan M. Akram & Kevin R. Johnson, Race, Civil Rights, and Immigration Law After September 11, 2001: The Targeting of Arabs and Muslims, 58 N.Y.U. ANN. SURV. AM. L. 295, 327-45 (2002) (outlining various measures taken by the Bush administration in the war on terror immediately after September 11, 2001).
286. See, e.g., Sameer M. Ashar, Immigration Enforcement and Subordination: The Consequences of Racial Profiling After September 11, 34 CONN. L. REV. 1185, 1194-96 (2002);
287. David Cole, Enemy Aliens, 54 STAN. L. REV. 953, 974 (2002);
288. Sharon Davies, Reflections on the Criminal Justice System After September 11, 2001: Profiling Terror, 1 OHIO ST. J. CRIM. L. 45, 46-49 (2003).
289. See generally Margaret Chon & Donna E. Arzt, Walking While Muslim, 68 LAW & CONTEMP. PROBS. 215 (2005);
290. Thomas W. Joo, Presumed Disloyal: Executive Power, Judicial Deference, and the Construction of Race Before and After September 11, 34 COLUM. HUM. RTS. L. REV 1 (2002);
291. Leti Volpp, The Citizen and the Terrorist, 49 UCLA L. REV. 1575 (2002).
292. See Kevin R. Johnson, September 11 and Mexican Immigrants: Collateral Damage Comes Home, 52 DEPAUL L. REV. 849, 867-70 (2003).
293. See Akram & Johnson, supra note 206, at 351-55.
294. See Erik Luna, Drug Exceptionalism, 47 VILL. L. REV. 753 (2002). See generally Carbado, supra note 201 (criticizing the evolution of the Court's Fourth Amendment jurisprudence). In a similar vein, a federal appeals judge proclaimed that I sense that history is likely to judge the judiciary's evisceration of the Fourth Amendment in the vicinity of the Mexican border as yet another jurisprudential nadir, joining Korematsu, Dred Scott, and even Plessy on the list of our most shameful failures to discharge our duty of defending constitutional civil liberties. United States v. Zapata-Ibarra, 223 F.3d 281, 282 (5th Cir. 2000) (Weiner, J., dissenting) (footnotes omitted).
295. California v. Acevedo, 500 U.S. 565, 601 (1991) (Stevens, J., dissenting). In Acevedo, the Court upheld the search of a closed container in an automobile. See id. at 580 (majority opinion).
296. See Whren v. United States, 517 U.S. 806, 813 (1996); see also Kevin R. Johnson, The Story of Whren v. United States: The Song Remains the Same, in RACE AND LAW STORIES (Devon Carbado & Rachel F. Moran eds., forthcoming 2008) (analyzing the facts and fallout of the Whren case).
297. 426 U.S. 229, 240-41 (1976).
298. See Theodore Eisenberg & Sheri Lynn Johnson, The Effects of Intent: Do We Know How Legal Standards Work?, 76 CORNELL L. REV. 1151 (1991) (reporting the results of an empirical study that concluded that the discriminatory-intent standard has deterred potential plaintiffs from filing civil-rights lawsuits).
299. See, e.g., Lawrence, supra note 116, at 369-76; Lenhardt, supra note 118, at 808-10.
300. For example, in McCleskey v. Kemp, 481 U.S. 279, 291-92 (1987), the Court rejected an equal-protection claim alleging racial discrimination in the imposition of the death penalty. Despite strong empirical evidence supporting the claim, the Court found that the plaintiffs had not established that the state actors possessed the requisite discriminatory intent. See id. at 292-94. One commentator opined that "[i]t is nearly impossible to make [the] showing" the Court required. COLE, supra note 186, at 135.
301. See, e.g., Washington v. Davis, 426 U.S. 229, 234-35 (1976) (discussing the racially disparate impact of police qualifying exams); Vill. of Arlington Heights v. Metro. Hous. Auth., 429 U.S. 252, 259 (1977) (summarizing the racially disparate impact of a zoning decision involving a proposed low-income housing development).
302. See, e.g., Flowers v. Fiore, 359 F.3d 24, 34-35 (1st Cir. 2004); Bingham v. City of Manhattan Beach, 341 F.3d 939, 948-49 (9th Cir. 2003); Chavez v. Ill. State Police, 251 F.3d 612, 648 (7th Cir. 2001); United States v. Avery, 137 F.3d 343, 358 (6th Cir. 1997); United States v. Duque-Nava, 315 F. Supp. 2d 1144, 1164 (D. Kan. 2004); United States v. Lindsay, 288 F. Supp. 2d 1196, 1204-05 (D. Kan. 2003); Shah v. Vill. of Hoffman Estates, No. 00 C 4404, 2002 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 3036, at *8 (N.D. Ill. Feb. 22, 2002).
303. See Yick Wo v. Hopkins, 118 U.S. 356 (1886).
304. 517 U.S. 456 (1996); see also United States v. Wallace, 389 F. Supp. 2d 799 (E.D. Mich. 2005) (holding that an African American defendant failed to make out a claim of selective prosecution); United States v. Mesa-Roche, 288 F. Supp. 2d 1172 (D. Kan. 2003) (finding that a Hispanic defendant failed to make out a claim of selective prosecution). Commentators have criticized Armstrong. See, e.g., Richard H. McAdams, Race and Selective Prosecution: Discovering the Pitfalls of Armstrong, 73 CHI.-KENT L. REV. 605, 606 (1998) (contending that Armstrong makes it too difficult to obtain the discovery necessary to prevail on a selective prosecution claim);
305. Anne Bowen Poulin, Prosecutorial Discretion and Selective Prosecution: Enforcing Protection After United States v. Armstrong, 34 AM. CRIM. L. REV. 1071, 1073 (1997) (stating that Armstrong "creates a barrier that few defendants are likely to surmount");
306. Melissa I. Jampol, Note, Goodbye to the Defense of Selective Prosecution, 87 J. CRIM. L. & CRIMINOLOGY 932, 932 (1997) (contending that Armstrong "imposes a barrier that is too high for almost any defendant alleging selective prosecution to obtain discovery");
307. Marc Michael, Note, United States v. Armstrong: Selective Prosecution - A Futile Defense and Its Arduous Standard of Discovery, 47 CATH. U.L. REV. 675, 717 (1998) (describing the selective prosecution defense in light of Armstrong as "an illusory opportunity to defeat criminal charges"); see also Maclin, supra note 192, at 337 n.22 (describing Armstrong's evidentiary burden as "heavy" and "strict").
308. See Armstrong, 517 U.S. at 463.
309. See, e.g., David A. Sklansky, Cocaine, Race, and Equal Protection, 47 STAN. L. REV. 1283 (1995);
310. William J. Stuntz, Race, Class, and Drugs, 98 COLUM. L. REV. 1795 (1998).
311. See Armstrong, 517 U.S. at 459.
312. See id. at 470. Although crack cocaine use appears to be higher among African Americans than whites, some whites use the drug and have been convicted of crack possession and sales. See Clarence Lusane, In Perpetual Motion: The Continuing Significance of Race and America's Drug Crisis, 1994 U. CHI. LEGAL F. 83, 101 (presenting statistical data on crack cases by race);
313. Jason A. Gillmer, Note, United States v. Clary: Equal Protection and the Crack Statute, 45 AM. U. L. REV. 497, 501 (1995) (recounting statistical data revealing that 4 percent of defendants convicted of federal crack-cocaine violations have been white).
314. See William J. Stuntz, The Political Constitution of Criminal Justice, 119 HARV. L. REV. 780, 781-82 (2006).
315. United States v. Carolene Prods. Co., 304 U.S. 144, 153 n.4 (1938) (discussing how "prejudice against discrete and insular minorities" may impede the normal operation of the political process). See generally JOHN HART ELY, DEMOCRACY AND DISTRUST: A THEORY OF JUDICIAL REVIEW (1980) (offering a theory of judicial review based on this political-process failure).
316. See Yale Kamisar, The Warren Court and Criminal Justice: A Quarter-Century Retrospective, 31 TULSA L.J. 1, 6-8 (1995).
317. There is an ongoing debate about the efficacy of multiracial coalitions. Compare Richard Delgado, Linking Arms: Recent Books on Interracial Coalition as an Avenue of Social Reform, 88 CORNELL L. REV. 855, 856 (2003) (book review) (criticizing the "preoccupation with interracial coalition"),