The hidden history of affirmative action: Working women's struggles in the 1970s and the gender of class

Feminist Studies

Volumn 25, Issue 1, 1999, Pages 43-78

  Maclean, Nancy ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0012071502     PISSN: 00463663     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/3216670     Document Type: Article

References (227)

1. The information in this and the two subsequent paragraphs is compiled from multiple documents, too numerous for individual citation, all found in United Women Firefighters Papers, box 4, First Women Firefighters of New York City Collection, Robert F. Wagner Labor Archives, New York University, New York.
2. Brenda Berkman to David J. Floyd, 23 Dec. 1983, box 4, United Women Firefighters Papers. Of course, some individual white men supported women in these struggles and some individual Black men proved hostile. For an excellent ethnographic account of the variety of male responses in one workplace in the skilled trades and why this makes leadership from management and unions especially important, see Brigid O'Farrell and Suzanne Moore, "Unions, Hard Hats, and Women Workers," in Dorothy Sue Cobble, ed., Women and Unions: Forming a Partnership (Ithaca, N.Y.: ILR Press, 1993), 69-84. See also Marian Swerdlow, "Men's Accommodations to Women Entering a Nontraditional Occupation: A Case of Rapid Transit Operatives," Gender & Society 3 (September 1989): 386; and Jean Reith Shroedel, Alone in a Crowd: Women in the Trades Tell Their Stories (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1985), 39, 57-59, 62, 170, 196-97, 208.
3. Brenda Berkman to David J. Floyd, 23 Dec. 1983, box 4, United Women Firefighters Papers. Of course, some individual white men supported women in these struggles and some individual Black men proved hostile. For an excellent ethnographic account of the variety of male responses in one workplace in the skilled trades and why this makes leadership from management and unions especially important, see Brigid O'Farrell and Suzanne Moore, "Unions, Hard Hats, and Women Workers," in Dorothy Sue Cobble, ed., Women and Unions: Forming a Partnership (Ithaca, N.Y.: ILR Press, 1993), 69-84. See also Marian Swerdlow, "Men's Accommodations to Women Entering a Nontraditional Occupation: A Case of Rapid Transit Operatives," Gender & Society 3 (September 1989): 386; and Jean Reith Shroedel, Alone in a Crowd: Women in the Trades Tell Their Stories (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1985), 39, 57-59, 62, 170, 196-97, 208.
4. Brenda Berkman to David J. Floyd, 23 Dec. 1983, box 4, United Women Firefighters Papers. Of course, some individual white men supported women in these struggles and some individual Black men proved hostile. For an excellent ethnographic account of the variety of male responses in one workplace in the skilled trades and why this makes leadership from management and unions especially important, see Brigid O'Farrell and Suzanne Moore, "Unions, Hard Hats, and Women Workers," in Dorothy Sue Cobble, ed., Women and Unions: Forming a Partnership (Ithaca, N.Y.: ILR Press, 1993), 69-84. See also Marian Swerdlow, "Men's Accommodations to Women Entering a Nontraditional Occupation: A Case of Rapid Transit Operatives," Gender & Society 3 (September 1989): 386; and Jean Reith Shroedel, Alone in a Crowd: Women in the Trades Tell Their Stories (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1985), 39, 57-59, 62, 170, 196-97, 208.
5. Cynthia Cockburn, Machinery of Dominance: Women, Men, and Technical Know-How (London: Pluto Press, 1985), 167-68; Ava Baron, "Gender and Labor History: Learning from the Past, Looking to the Future," in Work Engendered: Toward a New History of American Labor, ed. Ava Baron (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1991), 36, 37; Judith Butler, Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity (New York: Routledge, 1990), 140;
6. Cynthia Cockburn, Machinery of Dominance: Women, Men, and Technical Know-How (London: Pluto Press, 1985), 167-68; Ava Baron, "Gender and Labor History: Learning from the Past, Looking to the Future," in Work Engendered: Toward a New History of American Labor, ed. Ava Baron (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1991), 36, 37; Judith Butler, Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity (New York: Routledge, 1990), 140;
7. Cynthia Cockburn, Machinery of Dominance: Women, Men, and Technical Know-How (London: Pluto Press, 1985), 167-68; Ava Baron, "Gender and Labor History: Learning from the Past, Looking to the Future," in Work Engendered: Toward a New History of American Labor, ed. Ava Baron (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1991), 36, 37; Judith Butler, Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity (New York: Routledge, 1990), 140;
8. see also 25 and 136. Earlier, Sally Alexander offered a similarly dynamic definition of the sexual division of labor as "a historical relationship which structures both economic relations and unconscious mental processes."
9. Sally Alexander, introduction to Marianne Herzog's From Hand to Mouth: Women and Piecework, trans. Stanley Mitchell (London: Penguin Books, 1980), 25;
10. see also Ann Game and Rosemary Pringle, Gender at Work (London: Pluto Press, 1984), 14. On race making,
11. see Thomas C. Holt, "Marking: Race, Race-Making, and the Writing of History," American Historical Review 100 (February 1995): 1-20;
12. also Michael Omi and Howard Winant, Racial Formation in the United States, from the 1960s to the 1990s, 2d ed. (New York: Routledge, 1994).
13. For an incisive discussion of how gender and class have come to constitute one another over a several-thousand-year period, see Gerda Lerner, "Re-Thinking Class; ReThinking Race," in her Why History Matters: Life and Thought (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998). For an important early statement, see the editors' introduction to America's Working Women: A Documentary History, ed. Rosalyn Baxandall, Linda Gordon, and Susan Reverby (New York: Vintage, 1976), xxii. My intent here is not to discount the class oppression that wage-earning men endured but, rather, to highlight how gender differentiated the forms of that oppression as well as experiences of it and ideas about it. For a thoughtful exploration of how working-class standing affected U.S. men in these years, see Richard Sennett and Jonathan Cobb, The Hidden Injuries of Class (New York: Vintage, 1972).
14. For an incisive discussion of how gender and class have come to constitute one another over a several-thousand-year period, see Gerda Lerner, "Re-Thinking Class; ReThinking Race," in her Why History Matters: Life and Thought (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998). For an important early statement, see the editors' introduction to America's Working Women: A Documentary History, ed. Rosalyn Baxandall, Linda Gordon, and Susan Reverby (New York: Vintage, 1976), xxii. My intent here is not to discount the class oppression that wage-earning men endured but, rather, to highlight how gender differentiated the forms of that oppression as well as experiences of it and ideas about it. For a thoughtful exploration of how working-class standing affected U.S. men in these years, see Richard Sennett and Jonathan Cobb, The Hidden Injuries of Class (New York: Vintage, 1972).
15. For an incisive discussion of how gender and class have come to constitute one another over a several-thousand-year period, see Gerda Lerner, "Re-Thinking Class; ReThinking Race," in her Why History Matters: Life and Thought (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998). For an important early statement, see the editors' introduction to America's Working Women: A Documentary History, ed. Rosalyn Baxandall, Linda Gordon, and Susan Reverby (New York: Vintage, 1976), xxii. My intent here is not to discount the class oppression that wage-earning men endured but, rather, to highlight how gender differentiated the forms of that oppression as well as experiences of it and ideas about it. For a thoughtful exploration of how working-class standing affected U.S. men in these years, see Richard Sennett and Jonathan Cobb, The Hidden Injuries of Class (New York: Vintage, 1972).
16. For an incisive discussion of how gender and class have come to constitute one another over a several-thousand-year period, see Gerda Lerner, "Re-Thinking Class; ReThinking Race," in her Why History Matters: Life and Thought (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998). For an important early statement, see the editors' introduction to America's Working Women: A Documentary History, ed. Rosalyn Baxandall, Linda Gordon, and Susan Reverby (New York: Vintage, 1976), xxii. My intent here is not to discount the class oppression that wage-earning men endured but, rather, to highlight how gender differentiated the forms of that oppression as well as experiences of it and ideas about it. For a thoughtful exploration of how working-class standing affected U.S. men in these years, see Richard Sennett and Jonathan Cobb, The Hidden Injuries of Class (New York: Vintage, 1972).
17. For the pathbreaking origins story, see Sara Evans, Personal Politics: The Roots of Women's Liberation in the Civil Rights Movement and the New Left (New York: Random House, 1979); also William H. Chafe, The American Woman: Her Changing Social, Economic, and Political Roles, 1920-1970 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1972). Recent works that fail to move beyond the focus on middle-class white women and the neglect of the workplace in the story of the modern women's movement include Cynthia Harrison, On Account of Sex: The Politics of Women's Issues, 1945-1968 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988); Susan M. Hartmann, From Margin to Mainstream: American Women and Politics since 1960 (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1989); Winifred Wandersee, On the Move: American Women in the 1970s (Boston: Twayne, 1988).
18. For the pathbreaking origins story, see Sara Evans, Personal Politics: The Roots of Women's Liberation in the Civil Rights Movement and the New Left (New York: Random House, 1979); also William H. Chafe, The American Woman: Her Changing Social, Economic, and Political Roles, 1920-1970 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1972). Recent works that fail to move beyond the focus on middle-class white women and the neglect of the workplace in the story of the modern women's movement include Cynthia Harrison, On Account of Sex: The Politics of Women's Issues, 1945-1968 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988); Susan M. Hartmann, From Margin to Mainstream: American Women and Politics since 1960 (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1989); Winifred Wandersee, On the Move: American Women in the 1970s (Boston: Twayne, 1988).
19. For the pathbreaking origins story, see Sara Evans, Personal Politics: The Roots of Women's Liberation in the Civil Rights Movement and the New Left (New York: Random House, 1979); also William H. Chafe, The American Woman: Her Changing Social, Economic, and Political Roles, 1920-1970 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1972). Recent works that fail to move beyond the focus on middle-class white women and the neglect of the workplace in the story of the modern women's movement include Cynthia Harrison, On Account of Sex: The Politics of Women's Issues, 1945-1968 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988); Susan M. Hartmann, From Margin to Mainstream: American Women and Politics since 1960 (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1989); Winifred Wandersee, On the Move: American Women in the 1970s (Boston: Twayne, 1988).
20. For the pathbreaking origins story, see Sara Evans, Personal Politics: The Roots of Women's Liberation in the Civil Rights Movement and the New Left (New York: Random House, 1979); also William H. Chafe, The American Woman: Her Changing Social, Economic, and Political Roles, 1920-1970 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1972). Recent works that fail to move beyond the focus on middle-class white women and the neglect of the workplace in the story of the modern women's movement include Cynthia Harrison, On Account of Sex: The Politics of Women's Issues, 1945-1968 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988); Susan M. Hartmann, From Margin to Mainstream: American Women and Politics since 1960 (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1989); Winifred Wandersee, On the Move: American Women in the 1970s (Boston: Twayne, 1988).
21. For the pathbreaking origins story, see Sara Evans, Personal Politics: The Roots of Women's Liberation in the Civil Rights Movement and the New Left (New York: Random House, 1979); also William H. Chafe, The American Woman: Her Changing Social, Economic, and Political Roles, 1920-1970 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1972). Recent works that fail to move beyond the focus on middle-class white women and the neglect of the workplace in the story of the modern women's movement include Cynthia Harrison, On Account of Sex: The Politics of Women's Issues, 1945-1968 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988); Susan M. Hartmann, From Margin to Mainstream: American Women and Politics since 1960 (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1989); Winifred Wandersee, On the Move: American Women in the 1970s (Boston: Twayne, 1988).
22. Dorothy Sue Cobble, "Recapturing Working-Class Feminism: Union Women in the Postwar Era," in Not June Cleaver: Women and Gender in Postwar America, 1945-1960, ed. Joanne Meyerowitz (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1994). See also the pioneering work of Alice Kessler-Harris, Out to Work: A History of Wage-Earning Women in the United States (New York: Oxford University Press, 1982); Ruth Milkman, ed., Women, Work, and Protest: A Century of U.S. Women's Labor History (New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1985), 259-322; and Nancy F. Gabin, Feminism in the Labor Movement: Women and the United Auto Workers, 1935-1975 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1990); also Daniel Horowitz, "Rethinking Betty Friedan and The Feminine Mystique: Labor Union Radicalism and Feminism in Cold War America," American Quarterly 48 (March 1996): 1-42.
23. Dorothy Sue Cobble, "Recapturing Working-Class Feminism: Union Women in the Postwar Era," in Not June Cleaver: Women and Gender in Postwar America, 1945-1960, ed. Joanne Meyerowitz (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1994). See also the pioneering work of Alice Kessler-Harris, Out to Work: A History of Wage-Earning Women in the United States (New York: Oxford University Press, 1982); Ruth Milkman, ed., Women, Work, and Protest: A Century of U.S. Women's Labor History (New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1985), 259-322; and Nancy F. Gabin, Feminism in the Labor Movement: Women and the United Auto Workers, 1935-1975 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1990); also Daniel Horowitz, "Rethinking Betty Friedan and The Feminine Mystique: Labor Union Radicalism and Feminism in Cold War America," American Quarterly 48 (March 1996): 1-42.
24. Dorothy Sue Cobble, "Recapturing Working-Class Feminism: Union Women in the Postwar Era," in Not June Cleaver: Women and Gender in Postwar America, 1945-1960, ed. Joanne Meyerowitz (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1994). See also the pioneering work of Alice Kessler-Harris, Out to Work: A History of Wage-Earning Women in the United States (New York: Oxford University Press, 1982); Ruth Milkman, ed., Women, Work, and Protest: A Century of U.S. Women's Labor History (New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1985), 259-322; and Nancy F. Gabin, Feminism in the Labor Movement: Women and the United Auto Workers, 1935-1975 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1990); also Daniel Horowitz, "Rethinking Betty Friedan and The Feminine Mystique: Labor Union Radicalism and Feminism in Cold War America," American Quarterly 48 (March 1996): 1-42.
25. Dorothy Sue Cobble, "Recapturing Working-Class Feminism: Union Women in the Postwar Era," in Not June Cleaver: Women and Gender in Postwar America, 1945-1960, ed. Joanne Meyerowitz (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1994). See also the pioneering work of Alice Kessler-Harris, Out to Work: A History of Wage-Earning Women in the United States (New York: Oxford University Press, 1982); Ruth Milkman, ed., Women, Work, and Protest: A Century of U.S. Women's Labor History (New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1985), 259-322; and Nancy F. Gabin, Feminism in the Labor Movement: Women and the United Auto Workers, 1935-1975 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1990); also Daniel Horowitz, "Rethinking Betty Friedan and The Feminine Mystique: Labor Union Radicalism and Feminism in Cold War America," American Quarterly 48 (March 1996): 1-42.
26. Dorothy Sue Cobble, "Recapturing Working-Class Feminism: Union Women in the Postwar Era," in Not June Cleaver: Women and Gender in Postwar America, 1945-1960, ed. Joanne Meyerowitz (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1994). See also the pioneering work of Alice Kessler-Harris, Out to Work: A History of Wage-Earning Women in the United States (New York: Oxford University Press, 1982); Ruth Milkman, ed., Women, Work, and Protest: A Century of U.S. Women's Labor History (New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1985), 259-322; and Nancy F. Gabin, Feminism in the Labor Movement: Women and the United Auto Workers, 1935-1975 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1990); also Daniel Horowitz, "Rethinking Betty Friedan and The Feminine Mystique: Labor Union Radicalism and Feminism in Cold War America," American Quarterly 48 (March 1996): 1-42.
27. A. Philip Randolph to NALC members, with attachments, 28 Mar. 1961, box 1 (of National Afro American Labor Congress Addition), Richard Parrish Papers, Manuscripts Division, Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, New York Public Library, New York.
28. NALC Minutes, 28 Apr. 1959, box 4, James Haughton Papers, Manuscripts Division, Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, New York Public Library, New York; ibid., 16 Dec. 1963; Mary Callahan of the International Union of Electrical, Radio, and Machine Workers, quoted in Cobble, "Recapturing Working-Class Feminism," 68.
29. For an example of the exclusive association of affirmative action with "career women," see Dorothy Sue Cobble, "Introduction: Remaking Unions for the New Majority," in Women and Unions, 4; also Cobble, "Recapturing Working-Class Feminism," 72. Other scholars have trivialized affirmative action as something of value only to relatively privileged women or misconstrued it as a policy in which feminists, unlike those fighting for racial equality, showed little interest. For an example of the former, see Rosalind Rosenberg, Divided Lives: American Women in the Twentieth Century (New York: Hill & Wang, 1992), 235; for the latter, see Hugh Davis Graham, The Civil Rights Era: Origins and Development of National Policy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990). For a brief synthesis of social science research on the efficacy of affirmative action, see Institute for Women's Policy Research, "Affirmative Action in Employment: An Overview," Briefing Paper (Washington, D.C.: IWPR, 1996).
30. For an example of the exclusive association of affirmative action with "career women," see Dorothy Sue Cobble, "Introduction: Remaking Unions for the New Majority," in Women and Unions, 4; also Cobble, "Recapturing Working-Class Feminism," 72. Other scholars have trivialized affirmative action as something of value only to relatively privileged women or misconstrued it as a policy in which feminists, unlike those fighting for racial equality, showed little interest. For an example of the former, see Rosalind Rosenberg, Divided Lives: American Women in the Twentieth Century (New York: Hill & Wang, 1992), 235; for the latter, see Hugh Davis Graham, The Civil Rights Era: Origins and Development of National Policy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990). For a brief synthesis of social science research on the efficacy of affirmative action, see Institute for Women's Policy Research, "Affirmative Action in Employment: An Overview," Briefing Paper (Washington, D.C.: IWPR, 1996).
31. For an example of the exclusive association of affirmative action with "career women," see Dorothy Sue Cobble, "Introduction: Remaking Unions for the New Majority," in Women and Unions, 4; also Cobble, "Recapturing Working-Class Feminism," 72. Other scholars have trivialized affirmative action as something of value only to relatively privileged women or misconstrued it as a policy in which feminists, unlike those fighting for racial equality, showed little interest. For an example of the former, see Rosalind Rosenberg, Divided Lives: American Women in the Twentieth Century (New York: Hill & Wang, 1992), 235; for the latter, see Hugh Davis Graham, The Civil Rights Era: Origins and Development of National Policy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990). For a brief synthesis of social science research on the efficacy of affirmative action, see Institute for Women's Policy Research, "Affirmative Action in Employment: An Overview," Briefing Paper (Washington, D.C.: IWPR, 1996).
32. For an example of the exclusive association of affirmative action with "career women," see Dorothy Sue Cobble, "Introduction: Remaking Unions for the New Majority," in Women and Unions, 4; also Cobble, "Recapturing Working-Class Feminism," 72. Other scholars have trivialized affirmative action as something of value only to relatively privileged women or misconstrued it as a policy in which feminists, unlike those fighting for racial equality, showed little interest. For an example of the former, see Rosalind Rosenberg, Divided Lives: American Women in the Twentieth Century (New York: Hill & Wang, 1992), 235; for the latter, see Hugh Davis Graham, The Civil Rights Era: Origins and Development of National Policy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990). For a brief synthesis of social science research on the efficacy of affirmative action, see Institute for Women's Policy Research, "Affirmative Action in Employment: An Overview," Briefing Paper (Washington, D.C.: IWPR, 1996).
33. For an example of the exclusive association of affirmative action with "career women," see Dorothy Sue Cobble, "Introduction: Remaking Unions for the New Majority," in Women and Unions, 4; also Cobble, "Recapturing Working-Class Feminism," 72. Other scholars have trivialized affirmative action as something of value only to relatively privileged women or misconstrued it as a policy in which feminists, unlike those fighting for racial equality, showed little interest. For an example of the former, see Rosalind Rosenberg, Divided Lives: American Women in the Twentieth Century (New York: Hill & Wang, 1992), 235; for the latter, see Hugh Davis Graham, The Civil Rights Era: Origins and Development of National Policy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990). For a brief synthesis of social science research on the efficacy of affirmative action, see Institute for Women's Policy Research, "Affirmative Action in Employment: An Overview," Briefing Paper (Washington, D.C.: IWPR, 1996).
34. Quoted in Margery Davies, "Woman's Place Is at the Typewriter: The Feminization of the Clerical Labor Force," in Capitalism, Patriarchy, and the Case for Socialist Feminism, ed. Zillah R. Eisenstein (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1979), 257. See also Margery Davies, Woman's Place Is at the Typewriter: Office Work and Office Workers, 1870-1930 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1982); Rosalyn L. Feldberg, "'Union Fever': Organizing among Clerical Workers, 1900-1930," in Workers' Struggles, Past and Present: A "Radical America" Reader, ed. James Green (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1983), 151-67; Angel Kwolek-Folland, "Gender, Self, and Work in the Life Insurance Industry, 1880-1930" (168-90), and Ileen A. DeVault, "'Give the Boys a Trade': Gender and Job Choice in the 1890s" (191-215), both in Work Engendered. For an argument from Australian evidence about the way gender and sexuality pervade workplace relations in the office, see Rosemary Pringle, Secretaries Talk: Sexuality, Power, and Work (London: Verso, 1988).
35. Quoted in Margery Davies, "Woman's Place Is at the Typewriter: The Feminization of the Clerical Labor Force," in Capitalism, Patriarchy, and the Case for Socialist Feminism, ed. Zillah R. Eisenstein (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1979), 257. See also Margery Davies, Woman's Place Is at the Typewriter: Office Work and Office Workers, 1870-1930 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1982); Rosalyn L. Feldberg, "'Union Fever': Organizing among Clerical Workers, 1900-1930," in Workers' Struggles, Past and Present: A "Radical America" Reader, ed. James Green (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1983), 151-67; Angel Kwolek-Folland, "Gender, Self, and Work in the Life Insurance Industry, 1880-1930" (168-90), and Ileen A. DeVault, "'Give the Boys a Trade': Gender and Job Choice in the 1890s" (191-215), both in Work Engendered. For an argument from Australian evidence about the way gender and sexuality pervade workplace relations in the office, see Rosemary Pringle, Secretaries Talk: Sexuality, Power, and Work (London: Verso, 1988).
36. Quoted in Margery Davies, "Woman's Place Is at the Typewriter: The Feminization of the Clerical Labor Force," in Capitalism, Patriarchy, and the Case for Socialist Feminism, ed. Zillah R. Eisenstein (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1979), 257. See also Margery Davies, Woman's Place Is at the Typewriter: Office Work and Office Workers, 1870-1930 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1982); Rosalyn L. Feldberg, "'Union Fever': Organizing among Clerical Workers, 1900-1930," in Workers' Struggles, Past and Present: A "Radical America" Reader, ed. James Green (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1983), 151-67; Angel Kwolek-Folland, "Gender, Self, and Work in the Life Insurance Industry, 1880-1930" (168-90), and Ileen A. DeVault, "'Give the Boys a Trade': Gender and Job Choice in the 1890s" (191-215), both in Work Engendered. For an argument from Australian evidence about the way gender and sexuality pervade workplace relations in the office, see Rosemary Pringle, Secretaries Talk: Sexuality, Power, and Work (London: Verso, 1988).
37. Quoted in Margery Davies, "Woman's Place Is at the Typewriter: The Feminization of the Clerical Labor Force," in Capitalism, Patriarchy, and the Case for Socialist Feminism, ed. Zillah R. Eisenstein (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1979), 257. See also Margery Davies, Woman's Place Is at the Typewriter: Office Work and Office Workers, 1870-1930 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1982); Rosalyn L. Feldberg, "'Union Fever': Organizing among Clerical Workers, 1900-1930," in Workers' Struggles, Past and Present: A "Radical America" Reader, ed. James Green (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1983), 151-67; Angel Kwolek-Folland, "Gender, Self, and Work in the Life Insurance Industry, 1880-1930" (168-90), and Ileen A. DeVault, "'Give the Boys a Trade': Gender and Job Choice in the 1890s" (191-215), both in Work Engendered. For an argument from Australian evidence about the way gender and sexuality pervade workplace relations in the office, see Rosemary Pringle, Secretaries Talk: Sexuality, Power, and Work (London: Verso, 1988).
38. Quoted in Margery Davies, "Woman's Place Is at the Typewriter: The Feminization of the Clerical Labor Force," in Capitalism, Patriarchy, and the Case for Socialist Feminism, ed. Zillah R. Eisenstein (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1979), 257. See also Margery Davies, Woman's Place Is at the Typewriter: Office Work and Office Workers, 1870-1930 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1982); Rosalyn L. Feldberg, "'Union Fever': Organizing among Clerical Workers, 1900-1930," in Workers' Struggles, Past and Present: A "Radical America" Reader, ed. James Green (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1983), 151-67; Angel Kwolek-Folland, "Gender, Self, and Work in the Life Insurance Industry, 1880-1930" (168-90), and Ileen A. DeVault, "'Give the Boys a Trade': Gender and Job Choice in the 1890s" (191-215), both in Work Engendered. For an argument from Australian evidence about the way gender and sexuality pervade workplace relations in the office, see Rosemary Pringle, Secretaries Talk: Sexuality, Power, and Work (London: Verso, 1988).
39. Quoted in Margery Davies, "Woman's Place Is at the Typewriter: The Feminization of the Clerical Labor Force," in Capitalism, Patriarchy, and the Case for Socialist Feminism, ed. Zillah R. Eisenstein (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1979), 257. See also Margery Davies, Woman's Place Is at the Typewriter: Office Work and Office Workers, 1870-1930 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1982); Rosalyn L. Feldberg, "'Union Fever': Organizing among Clerical Workers, 1900-1930," in Workers' Struggles, Past and Present: A "Radical America" Reader, ed. James Green (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1983), 151-67; Angel Kwolek-Folland, "Gender, Self, and Work in the Life Insurance Industry, 1880-1930" (168-90), and Ileen A. DeVault, "'Give the Boys a Trade': Gender and Job Choice in the 1890s" (191-215), both in Work Engendered. For an argument from Australian evidence about the way gender and sexuality pervade workplace relations in the office, see Rosemary Pringle, Secretaries Talk: Sexuality, Power, and Work (London: Verso, 1988).
40. Joshua B. Freeman, "Hardhats: Construction Workers, Manliness, and the 1970 ProWar Demonstrations," Journal of Social History 26 (summer 1993): 726, 732. See also Michael Kazin, Barons of Labor: The San Francisco Building Trades and Union Power in the Progressive Era (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987); Jeffrey W. Riemer, Hard Hats: The Work World of Construction Workers (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage Publications, 1979); Herbert A. Applebaum, Royal Blue: The Culture of Construction Workers (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1981). For a provocative if flawed preliminary attempt to theorize relationships between masculinity and class, see Andrew Tolson, The Limits of Masculinity: Male Identity and the Liberated Woman (New York: Harper & Row, 1977). I am grateful to Linda Grant for bringing this work to my attention. See also Ava Baron, "On Looking at Men: Masculinity and the Making of Working-Class History," in Feminists Revision History, ed. Ann Louise Shapiro (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1994).
41. Joshua B. Freeman, "Hardhats: Construction Workers, Manliness, and the 1970 ProWar Demonstrations," Journal of Social History 26 (summer 1993): 726, 732. See also Michael Kazin, Barons of Labor: The San Francisco Building Trades and Union Power in the Progressive Era (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987); Jeffrey W. Riemer, Hard Hats: The Work World of Construction Workers (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage Publications, 1979); Herbert A. Applebaum, Royal Blue: The Culture of Construction Workers (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1981). For a provocative if flawed preliminary attempt to theorize relationships between masculinity and class, see Andrew Tolson, The Limits of Masculinity: Male Identity and the Liberated Woman (New York: Harper & Row, 1977). I am grateful to Linda Grant for bringing this work to my attention. See also Ava Baron, "On Looking at Men: Masculinity and the Making of Working-Class History," in Feminists Revision History, ed. Ann Louise Shapiro (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1994).
42. Joshua B. Freeman, "Hardhats: Construction Workers, Manliness, and the 1970 ProWar Demonstrations," Journal of Social History 26 (summer 1993): 726, 732. See also Michael Kazin, Barons of Labor: The San Francisco Building Trades and Union Power in the Progressive Era (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987); Jeffrey W. Riemer, Hard Hats: The Work World of Construction Workers (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage Publications, 1979); Herbert A. Applebaum, Royal Blue: The Culture of Construction Workers (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1981). For a provocative if flawed preliminary attempt to theorize relationships between masculinity and class, see Andrew Tolson, The Limits of Masculinity: Male Identity and the Liberated Woman (New York: Harper & Row, 1977). I am grateful to Linda Grant for bringing this work to my attention. See also Ava Baron, "On Looking at Men: Masculinity and the Making of Working-Class History," in Feminists Revision History, ed. Ann Louise Shapiro (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1994).
43. Joshua B. Freeman, "Hardhats: Construction Workers, Manliness, and the 1970 ProWar Demonstrations," Journal of Social History 26 (summer 1993): 726, 732. See also Michael Kazin, Barons of Labor: The San Francisco Building Trades and Union Power in the Progressive Era (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987); Jeffrey W. Riemer, Hard Hats: The Work World of Construction Workers (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage Publications, 1979); Herbert A. Applebaum, Royal Blue: The Culture of Construction Workers (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1981). For a provocative if flawed preliminary attempt to theorize relationships between masculinity and class, see Andrew Tolson, The Limits of Masculinity: Male Identity and the Liberated Woman (New York: Harper & Row, 1977). I am grateful to Linda Grant for bringing this work to my attention. See also Ava Baron, "On Looking at Men: Masculinity and the Making of Working-Class History," in Feminists Revision History, ed. Ann Louise Shapiro (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1994).
44. Joshua B. Freeman, "Hardhats: Construction Workers, Manliness, and the 1970 ProWar Demonstrations," Journal of Social History 26 (summer 1993): 726, 732. See also Michael Kazin, Barons of Labor: The San Francisco Building Trades and Union Power in the Progressive Era (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987); Jeffrey W. Riemer, Hard Hats: The Work World of Construction Workers (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage Publications, 1979); Herbert A. Applebaum, Royal Blue: The Culture of Construction Workers (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1981). For a provocative if flawed preliminary attempt to theorize relationships between masculinity and class, see Andrew Tolson, The Limits of Masculinity: Male Identity and the Liberated Woman (New York: Harper & Row, 1977). I am grateful to Linda Grant for bringing this work to my attention. See also Ava Baron, "On Looking at Men: Masculinity and the Making of Working-Class History," in Feminists Revision History, ed. Ann Louise Shapiro (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1994).
45. Joshua B. Freeman, "Hardhats: Construction Workers, Manliness, and the 1970 ProWar Demonstrations," Journal of Social History 26 (summer 1993): 726, 732. See also Michael Kazin, Barons of Labor: The San Francisco Building Trades and Union Power in the Progressive Era (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987); Jeffrey W. Riemer, Hard Hats: The Work World of Construction Workers (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage Publications, 1979); Herbert A. Applebaum, Royal Blue: The Culture of Construction Workers (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1981). For a provocative if flawed preliminary attempt to theorize relationships between masculinity and class, see Andrew Tolson, The Limits of Masculinity: Male Identity and the Liberated Woman (New York: Harper & Row, 1977). I am grateful to Linda Grant for bringing this work to my attention. See also Ava Baron, "On Looking at Men: Masculinity and the Making of Working-Class History," in Feminists Revision History, ed. Ann Louise Shapiro (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1994).
46. Cynthia Deitch, "Gender, Race, and Class Politics and the Inclusion of Women in Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act," Gender & Society 7 (June 1993): 198. For a sample of the ways women began to use Title VII, see Louise Bernikow, "Heaven Won't Protect the Working Girl," Ms., spring 1972, 123-25; Susan Edmiston, "Out from Under! A Major Report on Women Today," Redbook, May 1975, 159-68; "Business and the Radicals," Dun's Review 92 (June 1970): 46-49.
47. Cynthia Deitch, "Gender, Race, and Class Politics and the Inclusion of Women in Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act," Gender & Society 7 (June 1993): 198. For a sample of the ways women began to use Title VII, see Louise Bernikow, "Heaven Won't Protect the Working Girl," Ms., spring 1972, 123-25; Susan Edmiston, "Out from Under! A Major Report on Women Today," Redbook, May 1975, 159-68; "Business and the Radicals," Dun's Review 92 (June 1970): 46-49.
48. Cynthia Deitch, "Gender, Race, and Class Politics and the Inclusion of Women in Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act," Gender & Society 7 (June 1993): 198. For a sample of the ways women began to use Title VII, see Louise Bernikow, "Heaven Won't Protect the Working Girl," Ms., spring 1972, 123-25; Susan Edmiston, "Out from Under! A Major Report on Women Today," Redbook, May 1975, 159-68; "Business and the Radicals," Dun's Review 92 (June 1970): 46-49.
49. Cynthia Deitch, "Gender, Race, and Class Politics and the Inclusion of Women in Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act," Gender & Society 7 (June 1993): 198. For a sample of the ways women began to use Title VII, see Louise Bernikow, "Heaven Won't Protect the Working Girl," Ms., spring 1972, 123-25; Susan Edmiston, "Out from Under! A Major Report on Women Today," Redbook, May 1975, 159-68; "Business and the Radicals," Dun's Review 92 (June 1970): 46-49.
50. Interview with Alice Peurala in Brigid O'Farrell and Joyce L. Kornbluh, Rocking the Boat: Union Women's Voices, 1915-1975 (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1996), 268; Dennis A. Deslippe, "Organized Labor, National Politics, and Second-Wave Feminism in the United States, 1965-1975," International Labor and Working-Class History 49 (spring 1996): quotation on 161; also 147, 150. For further discussion of how "second-wave" feminism germinated in the ranks of labor and the Left, see Dennis A. Deslippe, "'We Had an Awful Time with Our Women': Iowa's United Packinghouse Workers of America, 1945-1975," Journal of Women's History 5 (spring 1993): 10-32; the pioneering study by Gabin, Feminism in the Labor Movement, 188-228; also Horowitz, "Rethinking Betty Friedan," 1-42.
51. Interview with Alice Peurala in Brigid O'Farrell and Joyce L. Kornbluh, Rocking the Boat: Union Women's Voices, 1915-1975 (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1996), 268; Dennis A. Deslippe, "Organized Labor, National Politics, and Second-Wave Feminism in the United States, 1965-1975," International Labor and Working-Class History 49 (spring 1996): quotation on 161; also 147, 150. For further discussion of how "second-wave" feminism germinated in the ranks of labor and the Left, see Dennis A. Deslippe, "'We Had an Awful Time with Our Women': Iowa's United Packinghouse Workers of America, 1945-1975," Journal of Women's History 5 (spring 1993): 10-32; the pioneering study by Gabin, Feminism in the Labor Movement, 188-228; also Horowitz, "Rethinking Betty Friedan," 1-42.
52. Interview with Alice Peurala in Brigid O'Farrell and Joyce L. Kornbluh, Rocking the Boat: Union Women's Voices, 1915-1975 (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1996), 268; Dennis A. Deslippe, "Organized Labor, National Politics, and Second-Wave Feminism in the United States, 1965-1975," International Labor and Working-Class History 49 (spring 1996): quotation on 161; also 147, 150. For further discussion of how "second-wave" feminism germinated in the ranks of labor and the Left, see Dennis A. Deslippe, "'We Had an Awful Time with Our Women': Iowa's United Packinghouse Workers of America, 1945-1975," Journal of Women's History 5 (spring 1993): 10-32; the pioneering study by Gabin, Feminism in the Labor Movement, 188-228; also Horowitz, "Rethinking Betty Friedan," 1-42.
53. Interview with Alice Peurala in Brigid O'Farrell and Joyce L. Kornbluh, Rocking the Boat: Union Women's Voices, 1915-1975 (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1996), 268; Dennis A. Deslippe, "Organized Labor, National Politics, and Second-Wave Feminism in the United States, 1965-1975," International Labor and Working-Class History 49 (spring 1996): quotation on 161; also 147, 150. For further discussion of how "second-wave" feminism germinated in the ranks of labor and the Left, see Dennis A. Deslippe, "'We Had an Awful Time with Our Women': Iowa's United Packinghouse Workers of America, 1945-1975," Journal of Women's History 5 (spring 1993): 10-32; the pioneering study by Gabin, Feminism in the Labor Movement, 188-228; also Horowitz, "Rethinking Betty Friedan," 1-42.
54. Interview with Alice Peurala in Brigid O'Farrell and Joyce L. Kornbluh, Rocking the Boat: Union Women's Voices, 1915-1975 (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1996), 268; Dennis A. Deslippe, "Organized Labor, National Politics, and Second-Wave Feminism in the United States, 1965-1975," International Labor and Working-Class History 49 (spring 1996): quotation on 161; also 147, 150. For further discussion of how "second-wave" feminism germinated in the ranks of labor and the Left, see Dennis A. Deslippe, "'We Had an Awful Time with Our Women': Iowa's United Packinghouse Workers of America, 1945-1975," Journal of Women's History 5 (spring 1993): 10-32; the pioneering study by Gabin, Feminism in the Labor Movement, 188-228; also Horowitz, "Rethinking Betty Friedan," 1-42.
55. Lynn Van Matre, "Women Speak Out on Their Status," Chicago Tribune, 28 June 1972, sec. 2ff, in box 51, Anne L. Armstrong Papers, Staff Member Office Files, White House Special Files, Richard M. Nixon Presidential Materials, National Archives, Washington, D.C. See also the fascinating interview with older working-class women by Susan Jacoby, "What Do I Do for the Next Twenty Years?" New York Times Magazine, 17 June 1973, reprinted in America's Working Women, 384-89; and "How Bosses Feel about Women's Lib," Business Week, 5 Sept. 1970, 18-19.
56. Lynn Van Matre, "Women Speak Out on Their Status," Chicago Tribune, 28 June 1972, sec. 2ff, in box 51, Anne L. Armstrong Papers, Staff Member Office Files, White House Special Files, Richard M. Nixon Presidential Materials, National Archives, Washington, D.C. See also the fascinating interview with older working-class women by Susan Jacoby, "What Do I Do for the Next Twenty Years?" New York Times Magazine, 17 June 1973, reprinted in America's Working Women, 384-89; and "How Bosses Feel about Women's Lib," Business Week, 5 Sept. 1970, 18-19.
57. Lynn Van Matre, "Women Speak Out on Their Status," Chicago Tribune, 28 June 1972, sec. 2ff, in box 51, Anne L. Armstrong Papers, Staff Member Office Files, White House Special Files, Richard M. Nixon Presidential Materials, National Archives, Washington, D.C. See also the fascinating interview with older working-class women by Susan Jacoby, "What Do I Do for the Next Twenty Years?" New York Times Magazine, 17 June 1973, reprinted in America's Working Women, 384-89; and "How Bosses Feel about Women's Lib," Business Week, 5 Sept. 1970, 18-19.
58. Lynn Van Matre, "Women Speak Out on Their Status," Chicago Tribune, 28 June 1972, sec. 2ff, in box 51, Anne L. Armstrong Papers, Staff Member Office Files, White House Special Files, Richard M. Nixon Presidential Materials, National Archives, Washington, D.C. See also the fascinating interview with older working-class women by Susan Jacoby, "What Do I Do for the Next Twenty Years?" New York Times Magazine, 17 June 1973, reprinted in America's Working Women, 384-89; and "How Bosses Feel about Women's Lib," Business Week, 5 Sept. 1970, 18-19.
59. Susan Davis, "Organizing from within," Ms., August 1972, 92; Mary Scott Welch, "How Women Just Like You Are Getting Better Jobs," Redbook, September 1977. This article provides the most wide-ranging and best single discussion of the caucus phenomenon. See also Philip Foner, Women and the American Labor Movement (New York: Free Press, 1980), 2: 542-43; O'Farrell and Kornbluh, 274-76. On Black workers' caucuses and rank-and-file unrest in the period, see Autocracy and Insurgency in Organized Labor, ed. Burton H. Hall (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Books, 1972); Dan Georgakas and Marvin Surkin, Detroit: I Do Mind Dying; A Study in Urban Revolution (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1975); Staughton Lynd and Alice Lynd, Rank and File: Personal Histories by Working-Class Organizers (Boston: Beacon Press, 1973).
60. Susan Davis, "Organizing from within," Ms., August 1972, 92; Mary Scott Welch, "How Women Just Like You Are Getting Better Jobs," Redbook, September 1977. This article provides the most wide-ranging and best single discussion of the caucus phenomenon. See also Philip Foner, Women and the American Labor Movement (New York: Free Press, 1980), 2: 542-43; O'Farrell and Kornbluh, 274-76. On Black workers' caucuses and rank-and-file unrest in the period, see Autocracy and Insurgency in Organized Labor, ed. Burton H. Hall (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Books, 1972); Dan Georgakas and Marvin Surkin, Detroit: I Do Mind Dying; A Study in Urban Revolution (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1975); Staughton Lynd and Alice Lynd, Rank and File: Personal Histories by Working-Class Organizers (Boston: Beacon Press, 1973).
61. Susan Davis, "Organizing from within," Ms., August 1972, 92; Mary Scott Welch, "How Women Just Like You Are Getting Better Jobs," Redbook, September 1977. This article provides the most wide-ranging and best single discussion of the caucus phenomenon. See also Philip Foner, Women and the American Labor Movement (New York: Free Press, 1980), 2: 542-43; O'Farrell and Kornbluh, 274-76. On Black workers' caucuses and rank-and-file unrest in the period, see Autocracy and Insurgency in Organized Labor, ed. Burton H. Hall (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Books, 1972); Dan Georgakas and Marvin Surkin, Detroit: I Do Mind Dying; A Study in Urban Revolution (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1975); Staughton Lynd and Alice Lynd, Rank and File: Personal Histories by Working-Class Organizers (Boston: Beacon Press, 1973).
62. Susan Davis, "Organizing from within," Ms., August 1972, 92; Mary Scott Welch, "How Women Just Like You Are Getting Better Jobs," Redbook, September 1977. This article provides the most wide-ranging and best single discussion of the caucus phenomenon. See also Philip Foner, Women and the American Labor Movement (New York: Free Press, 1980), 2: 542-43; O'Farrell and Kornbluh, 274-76. On Black workers' caucuses and rank-and-file unrest in the period, see Autocracy and Insurgency in Organized Labor, ed. Burton H. Hall (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Books, 1972); Dan Georgakas and Marvin Surkin, Detroit: I Do Mind Dying; A Study in Urban Revolution (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1975); Staughton Lynd and Alice Lynd, Rank and File: Personal Histories by Working-Class Organizers (Boston: Beacon Press, 1973).
63. Susan Davis, "Organizing from within," Ms., August 1972, 92; Mary Scott Welch, "How Women Just Like You Are Getting Better Jobs," Redbook, September 1977. This article provides the most wide-ranging and best single discussion of the caucus phenomenon. See also Philip Foner, Women and the American Labor Movement (New York: Free Press, 1980), 2: 542-43; O'Farrell and Kornbluh, 274-76. On Black workers' caucuses and rank-and-file unrest in the period, see Autocracy and Insurgency in Organized Labor, ed. Burton H. Hall (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Books, 1972); Dan Georgakas and Marvin Surkin, Detroit: I Do Mind Dying; A Study in Urban Revolution (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1975); Staughton Lynd and Alice Lynd, Rank and File: Personal Histories by Working-Class Organizers (Boston: Beacon Press, 1973).
64. Susan Davis, "Organizing from within," Ms., August 1972, 92; Mary Scott Welch, "How Women Just Like You Are Getting Better Jobs," Redbook, September 1977. This article provides the most wide-ranging and best single discussion of the caucus phenomenon. See also Philip Foner, Women and the American Labor Movement (New York: Free Press, 1980), 2: 542-43; O'Farrell and Kornbluh, 274-76. On Black workers' caucuses and rank-and-file unrest in the period, see Autocracy and Insurgency in Organized Labor, ed. Burton H. Hall (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Books, 1972); Dan Georgakas and Marvin Surkin, Detroit: I Do Mind Dying; A Study in Urban Revolution (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1975); Staughton Lynd and Alice Lynd, Rank and File: Personal Histories by Working-Class Organizers (Boston: Beacon Press, 1973).
65. One recent study has found in such caucuses the predominant form of gender-conscious activism among women in the 1980s. See Mary Fainsod Katzenstein, "Feminism within American Institutions: Unobtrusive Mobilization in the 1980s," Signs 16 (autumn 1990): 27-54. Women involved in such efforts not infrequently developed international connections, helping women in other countries to start their own caucuses and sharing information thereafter. For an example, see Mary Stott to Betsy Wade, 18 Mar. [ca. 1975], box 1, New York Times Women's Caucus Papers, Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe College, Cambridge (hereafter, NYTWC).
66. One recent study has found in such caucuses the predominant form of gender-conscious activism among women in the 1980s. See Mary Fainsod Katzenstein, "Feminism within American Institutions: Unobtrusive Mobilization in the 1980s," Signs 16 (autumn 1990): 27-54. Women involved in such efforts not infrequently developed international connections, helping women in other countries to start their own caucuses and sharing information thereafter. For an example, see Mary Stott to Betsy Wade, 18 Mar. [ca. 1975], box 1, New York Times Women's Caucus Papers, Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe College, Cambridge (hereafter, NYTWC).
67. Davis, 96. On the start of the New York Times Women's Caucus, see Grace Glueck's typescript notes for speech at American Palace Theater, 26 Oct. 1978, box 1, NYTWC. For other efforts, see Jewell George [for NBC's Women's Committee for Equal Employment Opportunity] to Jill Ruckelshaus, 7 Nov. 1973, box 18, GEN HU 2-2, White House Central Files, Nixon Presidential Materials; Media Report to Women 2 (1 Dec. 1974), box 1, NYTWC; and "Sexism Scorecard," MORE, October 1977, ibid.; NBC Women's Committee, press release, "Network Women Meet," 18 Dec. 1972, ibid. See also Welch. For the grievances and experiences of other women involved in like efforts, see Jean Tepperman, Not Servants, Not Machines: Office Workers Speak Out (Boston: Beacon Press, 1976), 1-38, 69-93.
68. Davis, 96. On the start of the New York Times Women's Caucus, see Grace Glueck's typescript notes for speech at American Palace Theater, 26 Oct. 1978, box 1, NYTWC. For other efforts, see Jewell George [for NBC's Women's Committee for Equal Employment Opportunity] to Jill Ruckelshaus, 7 Nov. 1973, box 18, GEN HU 2-2, White House Central Files, Nixon Presidential Materials; Media Report to Women 2 (1 Dec. 1974), box 1, NYTWC; and "Sexism Scorecard," MORE, October 1977, ibid.; NBC Women's Committee, press release, "Network Women Meet," 18 Dec. 1972, ibid. See also Welch. For the grievances and experiences of other women involved in like efforts, see Jean Tepperman, Not Servants, Not Machines: Office Workers Speak Out (Boston: Beacon Press, 1976), 1-38, 69-93.
69. Davis, 96. On the start of the New York Times Women's Caucus, see Grace Glueck's typescript notes for speech at American Palace Theater, 26 Oct. 1978, box 1, NYTWC. For other efforts, see Jewell George [for NBC's Women's Committee for Equal Employment Opportunity] to Jill Ruckelshaus, 7 Nov. 1973, box 18, GEN HU 2-2, White House Central Files, Nixon Presidential Materials; Media Report to Women 2 (1 Dec. 1974), box 1, NYTWC; and "Sexism Scorecard," MORE, October 1977, ibid.; NBC Women's Committee, press release, "Network Women Meet," 18 Dec. 1972, ibid. See also Welch. For the grievances and experiences of other women involved in like efforts, see Jean Tepperman, Not Servants, Not Machines: Office Workers Speak Out (Boston: Beacon Press, 1976), 1-38, 69-93.
70. Davis, 96. On the start of the New York Times Women's Caucus, see Grace Glueck's typescript notes for speech at American Palace Theater, 26 Oct. 1978, box 1, NYTWC. For other efforts, see Jewell George [for NBC's Women's Committee for Equal Employment Opportunity] to Jill Ruckelshaus, 7 Nov. 1973, box 18, GEN HU 2-2, White House Central Files, Nixon Presidential Materials; Media Report to Women 2 (1 Dec. 1974), box 1, NYTWC; and "Sexism Scorecard," MORE, October 1977, ibid.; NBC Women's Committee, press release, "Network Women Meet," 18 Dec. 1972, ibid. See also Welch. For the grievances and experiences of other women involved in like efforts, see Jean Tepperman, Not Servants, Not Machines: Office Workers Speak Out (Boston: Beacon Press, 1976), 1-38, 69-93.
71. Davis, 96. On the start of the New York Times Women's Caucus, see Grace Glueck's typescript notes for speech at American Palace Theater, 26 Oct. 1978, box 1, NYTWC. For other efforts, see Jewell George [for NBC's Women's Committee for Equal Employment Opportunity] to Jill Ruckelshaus, 7 Nov. 1973, box 18, GEN HU 2-2, White House Central Files, Nixon Presidential Materials; Media Report to Women 2 (1 Dec. 1974), box 1, NYTWC; and "Sexism Scorecard," MORE, October 1977, ibid.; NBC Women's Committee, press release, "Network Women Meet," 18 Dec. 1972, ibid. See also Welch. For the grievances and experiences of other women involved in like efforts, see Jean Tepperman, Not Servants, Not Machines: Office Workers Speak Out (Boston: Beacon Press, 1976), 1-38, 69-93.
72. Davis, 96. On the start of the New York Times Women's Caucus, see Grace Glueck's typescript notes for speech at American Palace Theater, 26 Oct. 1978, box 1, NYTWC. For other efforts, see Jewell George [for NBC's Women's Committee for Equal Employment Opportunity] to Jill Ruckelshaus, 7 Nov. 1973, box 18, GEN HU 2-2, White House Central Files, Nixon Presidential Materials; Media Report to Women 2 (1 Dec. 1974), box 1, NYTWC; and "Sexism Scorecard," MORE, October 1977, ibid.; NBC Women's Committee, press release, "Network Women Meet," 18 Dec. 1972, ibid. See also Welch. For the grievances and experiences of other women involved in like efforts, see Jean Tepperman, Not Servants, Not Machines: Office Workers Speak Out (Boston: Beacon Press, 1976), 1-38, 69-93.
73. Davis, 96. On the start of the New York Times Women's Caucus, see Grace Glueck's typescript notes for speech at American Palace Theater, 26 Oct. 1978, box 1, NYTWC. For other efforts, see Jewell George [for NBC's Women's Committee for Equal Employment Opportunity] to Jill Ruckelshaus, 7 Nov. 1973, box 18, GEN HU 2-2, White House Central Files, Nixon Presidential Materials; Media Report to Women 2 (1 Dec. 1974), box 1, NYTWC; and "Sexism Scorecard," MORE, October 1977, ibid.; NBC Women's Committee, press release, "Network Women Meet," 18 Dec. 1972, ibid. See also Welch. For the grievances and experiences of other women involved in like efforts, see Jean Tepperman, Not Servants, Not Machines: Office Workers Speak Out (Boston: Beacon Press, 1976), 1-38, 69-93.
74. For the attitude toward classified sales people, see Betsy Wade to Grace, Joan, Harriet, and Howard, 22 Aug. 1974, box 1, NYTWC; see also Glueck notes for speech. For followup, see Joan Cook, "Notes on telephone conversation with [Attorney] Harriet Rabb," 2 Apr. 1980, box 1, NYTWC. Discussion in this paragraph is based on a large number of documents in the NYTWC Papers but see in particular: the text of Elizabeth Boylan et al., Plaintiffs v. The "New
75. For the attitude toward classified sales people, see Betsy Wade to Grace, Joan, Harriet, and Howard, 22 Aug. 1974, box 1, NYTWC; see also Glueck notes for speech. For followup, see Joan Cook, "Notes on telephone conversation with [Attorney] Harriet Rabb," 2 Apr. 1980, box 1, NYTWC. Discussion in this paragraph is based on a large number of documents in the NYTWC Papers but see in particular: the text of Elizabeth Boylan et al., Plaintiffs v. The "New York Times," Defendant, U.S. District Ct., Southern District of New York, 74 Civ. 4891, Judge Werker, and the expert witness depositions in box 1; "Betsy Wade, A Fondness for Facts," clipping of advertisement, ca. 1962, box 2; Betsy Wade to Grace Glueck and Joan Cook, 19 Aug. [1974], box 1; Betsy Wade to Yetta Riesel, 30 May 1974; Members of the Negotiating Committee to All Women at the New York Times, December 1974; also, "The Other Side of It," spring 1977, 1; [no author] "The Times Settles Sex Bias Suit Filed by Female Workers in U.S. Court," New York Times, 21 Nov. 1978, B7; Marion Knox, "Women and the Times," The Nation, 9 Dec. 1978, 635-37; typescript history, "Times Caucus," n.d. [1975], NYTWC Papers. See also Lindsay Van Gelder, "Women vs. the New York Times," Ms., September 1978, 66 ff. For another well-documented but dispersed group, see the records of Federally Employed Women (FEW), in the Mary O. Eastwood Papers, Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe College, Cambridge.
76. For the attitude toward classified sales people, see Betsy Wade to Grace, Joan, Harriet, and Howard, 22 Aug. 1974, box 1, NYTWC; see also Glueck notes for speech. For followup, see Joan Cook, "Notes on telephone conversation with [Attorney] Harriet Rabb," 2 Apr. 1980, box 1, NYTWC. Discussion in this paragraph is based on a large number of documents in the NYTWC Papers but see in particular: the text of Elizabeth Boylan et al., Plaintiffs v. The "New York Times," Defendant, U.S. District Ct., Southern District of New York, 74 Civ. 4891, Judge Werker, and the expert witness depositions in box 1; "Betsy Wade, A Fondness for Facts," clipping of advertisement, ca. 1962, box 2; Betsy Wade to Grace Glueck and Joan Cook, 19 Aug. [1974], box 1; Betsy Wade to Yetta Riesel, 30 May 1974; Members of the Negotiating Committee to All Women at the New York Times, December 1974; also, "The Other Side of It," spring 1977, 1; [no author] "The Times Settles Sex Bias Suit Filed by Female Workers in U.S. Court," New York Times, 21 Nov. 1978, B7; Marion Knox, "Women and the Times," The Nation, 9 Dec. 1978, 635-37; typescript history, "Times Caucus," n.d. [1975], NYTWC Papers. See also Lindsay Van Gelder, "Women vs. the New York Times," Ms., September 1978, 66 ff. For another well-documented but dispersed group, see the records of Federally Employed Women (FEW), in the Mary O. Eastwood Papers, Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe College, Cambridge.
77. For the attitude toward classified sales people, see Betsy Wade to Grace, Joan, Harriet, and Howard, 22 Aug. 1974, box 1, NYTWC; see also Glueck notes for speech. For followup, see Joan Cook, "Notes on telephone conversation with [Attorney] Harriet Rabb," 2 Apr. 1980, box 1, NYTWC. Discussion in this paragraph is based on a large number of documents in the NYTWC Papers but see in particular: the text of Elizabeth Boylan et al., Plaintiffs v. The "New York Times," Defendant, U.S. District Ct., Southern District of New York, 74 Civ. 4891, Judge Werker, and the expert witness depositions in box 1; "Betsy Wade, A Fondness for Facts," clipping of advertisement, ca. 1962, box 2; Betsy Wade to Grace Glueck and Joan Cook, 19 Aug. [1974], box 1; Betsy Wade to Yetta Riesel, 30 May 1974; Members of the Negotiating Committee to All Women at the New York Times, December 1974; also, "The Other Side of It," spring 1977, 1; [no author] "The Times Settles Sex Bias Suit Filed by Female Workers in U.S. Court," New York Times, 21 Nov. 1978, B7; Marion Knox, "Women and the Times," The Nation, 9 Dec. 1978, 635-37; typescript history, "Times Caucus," n.d. [1975], NYTWC Papers. See also Lindsay Van Gelder, "Women vs. the New York Times," Ms., September 1978, 66 ff. For another well-documented but dispersed group, see the records of Federally Employed Women (FEW), in the Mary O. Eastwood Papers, Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe College, Cambridge.
78. For the attitude toward classified sales people, see Betsy Wade to Grace, Joan, Harriet, and Howard, 22 Aug. 1974, box 1, NYTWC; see also Glueck notes for speech. For followup, see Joan Cook, "Notes on telephone conversation with [Attorney] Harriet Rabb," 2 Apr. 1980, box 1, NYTWC. Discussion in this paragraph is based on a large number of documents in the NYTWC Papers but see in particular: the text of Elizabeth Boylan et al., Plaintiffs v. The "New York Times," Defendant, U.S. District Ct., Southern District of New York, 74 Civ. 4891, Judge Werker, and the expert witness depositions in box 1; "Betsy Wade, A Fondness for Facts," clipping of advertisement, ca. 1962, box 2; Betsy Wade to Grace Glueck and Joan Cook, 19 Aug. [1974], box 1; Betsy Wade to Yetta Riesel, 30 May 1974; Members of the Negotiating Committee to All Women at the New York Times, December 1974; also, "The Other Side of It," spring 1977, 1; [no author] "The Times Settles Sex Bias Suit Filed by Female Workers in U.S. Court," New York Times, 21 Nov. 1978, B7; Marion Knox, "Women and the Times," The Nation, 9 Dec. 1978, 635-37; typescript history, "Times Caucus," n.d. [1975], NYTWC Papers. See also Lindsay Van Gelder, "Women vs. the New York Times," Ms., September 1978, 66 ff. For another well-documented but dispersed group, see the records of Federally Employed Women (FEW), in the Mary O. Eastwood Papers, Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe College, Cambridge.
79. For the attitude toward classified sales people, see Betsy Wade to Grace, Joan, Harriet, and Howard, 22 Aug. 1974, box 1, NYTWC; see also Glueck notes for speech. For followup, see Joan Cook, "Notes on telephone conversation with [Attorney] Harriet Rabb," 2 Apr. 1980, box 1, NYTWC. Discussion in this paragraph is based on a large number of documents in the NYTWC Papers but see in particular: the text of Elizabeth Boylan et al., Plaintiffs v. The "New York Times," Defendant, U.S. District Ct., Southern District of New York, 74 Civ. 4891, Judge Werker, and the expert witness depositions in box 1; "Betsy Wade, A Fondness for Facts," clipping of advertisement, ca. 1962, box 2; Betsy Wade to Grace Glueck and Joan Cook, 19 Aug. [1974], box 1; Betsy Wade to Yetta Riesel, 30 May 1974; Members of the Negotiating Committee to All Women at the New York Times, December 1974; also, "The Other Side of It," spring 1977, 1; [no author] "The Times Settles Sex Bias Suit Filed by Female Workers in U.S. Court," New York Times, 21 Nov. 1978, B7; Marion Knox, "Women and the Times," The Nation, 9 Dec. 1978, 635-37; typescript history, "Times Caucus," n.d. [1975], NYTWC Papers. See also Lindsay Van Gelder, "Women vs. the New York Times," Ms., September 1978, 66 ff. For another well-documented but dispersed group, see the records of Federally Employed Women (FEW), in the Mary O. Eastwood Papers, Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe College, Cambridge.
80. For the attitude toward classified sales people, see Betsy Wade to Grace, Joan, Harriet, and Howard, 22 Aug. 1974, box 1, NYTWC; see also Glueck notes for speech. For followup, see Joan Cook, "Notes on telephone conversation with [Attorney] Harriet Rabb," 2 Apr. 1980, box 1, NYTWC. Discussion in this paragraph is based on a large number of documents in the NYTWC Papers but see in particular: the text of Elizabeth Boylan et al., Plaintiffs v. The "New York Times," Defendant, U.S. District Ct., Southern District of New York, 74 Civ. 4891, Judge Werker, and the expert witness depositions in box 1; "Betsy Wade, A Fondness for Facts," clipping of advertisement, ca. 1962, box 2; Betsy Wade to Grace Glueck and Joan Cook, 19 Aug. [1974], box 1; Betsy Wade to Yetta Riesel, 30 May 1974; Members of the Negotiating Committee to All Women at the New York Times, December 1974; also, "The Other Side of It," spring 1977, 1; [no author] "The Times Settles Sex Bias Suit Filed by Female Workers in U.S. Court," New York Times, 21 Nov. 1978, B7; Marion Knox, "Women and the Times," The Nation, 9 Dec. 1978, 635-37; typescript history, "Times Caucus," n.d. [1975], NYTWC Papers. See also Lindsay Van Gelder, "Women vs. the New York Times," Ms., September 1978, 66 ff. For another well-documented but dispersed group, see the records of Federally Employed Women (FEW), in the Mary O. Eastwood Papers, Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe College, Cambridge.
81. For the attitude toward classified sales people, see Betsy Wade to Grace, Joan, Harriet, and Howard, 22 Aug. 1974, box 1, NYTWC; see also Glueck notes for speech. For followup, see Joan Cook, "Notes on telephone conversation with [Attorney] Harriet Rabb," 2 Apr. 1980, box 1, NYTWC. Discussion in this paragraph is based on a large number of documents in the NYTWC Papers but see in particular: the text of Elizabeth Boylan et al., Plaintiffs v. The "New York Times," Defendant, U.S. District Ct., Southern District of New York, 74 Civ. 4891, Judge Werker, and the expert witness depositions in box 1; "Betsy Wade, A Fondness for Facts," clipping of advertisement, ca. 1962, box 2; Betsy Wade to Grace Glueck and Joan Cook, 19 Aug. [1974], box 1; Betsy Wade to Yetta Riesel, 30 May 1974; Members of the Negotiating Committee to All Women at the New York Times, December 1974; also, "The Other Side of It," spring 1977, 1; [no author] "The Times Settles Sex Bias Suit Filed by Female Workers in U.S. Court," New York Times, 21 Nov. 1978, B7; Marion Knox, "Women and the Times," The Nation, 9 Dec. 1978, 635-37; typescript history, "Times Caucus," n.d. [1975], NYTWC Papers. See also Lindsay Van Gelder, "Women vs. the New York Times," Ms., September 1978, 66 ff. For another well-documented but dispersed group, see the records of Federally Employed Women (FEW), in the Mary O. Eastwood Papers, Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe College, Cambridge.
82. For the attitude toward classified sales people, see Betsy Wade to Grace, Joan, Harriet, and Howard, 22 Aug. 1974, box 1, NYTWC; see also Glueck notes for speech. For followup, see Joan Cook, "Notes on telephone conversation with [Attorney] Harriet Rabb," 2 Apr. 1980, box 1, NYTWC. Discussion in this paragraph is based on a large number of documents in the NYTWC Papers but see in particular: the text of Elizabeth Boylan et al., Plaintiffs v. The "New York Times," Defendant, U.S. District Ct., Southern District of New York, 74 Civ. 4891, Judge Werker, and the expert witness depositions in box 1; "Betsy Wade, A Fondness for Facts," clipping of advertisement, ca. 1962, box 2; Betsy Wade to Grace Glueck and Joan Cook, 19 Aug. [1974], box 1; Betsy Wade to Yetta Riesel, 30 May 1974; Members of the Negotiating Committee to All Women at the New York Times, December 1974; also, "The Other Side of It," spring 1977, 1; [no author] "The Times Settles Sex Bias Suit Filed by Female Workers in U.S. Court," New York Times, 21 Nov. 1978, B7; Marion Knox, "Women and the Times," The Nation, 9 Dec. 1978, 635-37; typescript history, "Times Caucus," n.d. [1975], NYTWC Papers. See also Lindsay Van Gelder, "Women vs. the New York Times," Ms., September 1978, 66 ff. For another well-documented but dispersed group, see the records of Federally Employed Women (FEW), in the Mary O. Eastwood Papers, Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe College, Cambridge.
83. For the attitude toward classified sales people, see Betsy Wade to Grace, Joan, Harriet, and Howard, 22 Aug. 1974, box 1, NYTWC; see also Glueck notes for speech. For followup, see Joan Cook, "Notes on telephone conversation with [Attorney] Harriet Rabb," 2 Apr. 1980, box 1, NYTWC. Discussion in this paragraph is based on a large number of documents in the NYTWC Papers but see in particular: the text of Elizabeth Boylan et al., Plaintiffs v. The "New York Times," Defendant, U.S. District Ct., Southern District of New York, 74 Civ. 4891, Judge Werker, and the expert witness depositions in box 1; "Betsy Wade, A Fondness for Facts," clipping of advertisement, ca. 1962, box 2; Betsy Wade to Grace Glueck and Joan Cook, 19 Aug. [1974], box 1; Betsy Wade to Yetta Riesel, 30 May 1974; Members of the Negotiating Committee to All Women at the New York Times, December 1974; also, "The Other Side of It," spring 1977, 1; [no author] "The Times Settles Sex Bias Suit Filed by Female Workers in U.S. Court," New York Times, 21 Nov. 1978, B7; Marion Knox, "Women and the Times," The Nation, 9 Dec. 1978, 635-37; typescript history, "Times Caucus," n.d. [1975], NYTWC Papers. See also Lindsay Van Gelder, "Women vs. the New York Times," Ms., September 1978, 66 ff. For another well-documented but dispersed group, see the records of Federally Employed Women (FEW), in the Mary O. Eastwood Papers, Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe College, Cambridge.
84. For the attitude toward classified sales people, see Betsy Wade to Grace, Joan, Harriet, and Howard, 22 Aug. 1974, box 1, NYTWC; see also Glueck notes for speech. For followup, see Joan Cook, "Notes on telephone conversation with [Attorney] Harriet Rabb," 2 Apr. 1980, box 1, NYTWC. Discussion in this paragraph is based on a large number of documents in the NYTWC Papers but see in particular: the text of Elizabeth Boylan et al., Plaintiffs v. The "New York Times," Defendant, U.S. District Ct., Southern District of New York, 74 Civ. 4891, Judge Werker, and the expert witness depositions in box 1; "Betsy Wade, A Fondness for Facts," clipping of advertisement, ca. 1962, box 2; Betsy Wade to Grace Glueck and Joan Cook, 19 Aug. [1974], box 1; Betsy Wade to Yetta Riesel, 30 May 1974; Members of the Negotiating Committee to All Women at the New York Times, December 1974; also, "The Other Side of It," spring 1977, 1; [no author] "The Times Settles Sex Bias Suit Filed by Female Workers in U.S. Court," New York Times, 21 Nov. 1978, B7; Marion Knox, "Women and the Times," The Nation, 9 Dec. 1978, 635-37; typescript history, "Times Caucus," n.d. [1975], NYTWC Papers. See also Lindsay Van Gelder, "Women vs. the New York Times," Ms., September 1978, 66 ff. For another well-documented but dispersed group, see the records of Federally Employed Women (FEW), in the Mary O. Eastwood Papers, Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe College, Cambridge.
85. For the attitude toward classified sales people, see Betsy Wade to Grace, Joan, Harriet, and Howard, 22 Aug. 1974, box 1, NYTWC; see also Glueck notes for speech. For followup, see Joan Cook, "Notes on telephone conversation with [Attorney] Harriet Rabb," 2 Apr. 1980, box 1, NYTWC. Discussion in this paragraph is based on a large number of documents in the NYTWC Papers but see in particular: the text of Elizabeth Boylan et al., Plaintiffs v. The "New York Times," Defendant, U.S. District Ct., Southern District of New York, 74 Civ. 4891, Judge Werker, and the expert witness depositions in box 1; "Betsy Wade, A Fondness for Facts," clipping of advertisement, ca. 1962, box 2; Betsy Wade to Grace Glueck and Joan Cook, 19 Aug. [1974], box 1; Betsy Wade to Yetta Riesel, 30 May 1974; Members of the Negotiating Committee to All Women at the New York Times, December 1974; also, "The Other Side of It," spring 1977, 1; [no author] "The Times Settles Sex Bias Suit Filed by Female Workers in U.S. Court," New York Times, 21 Nov. 1978, B7; Marion Knox, "Women and the Times," The Nation, 9 Dec. 1978, 635-37; typescript history, "Times Caucus," n.d. [1975], NYTWC Papers. See also Lindsay Van Gelder, "Women vs. the New York Times," Ms., September 1978, 66 ff. For another well-documented but dispersed group, see the records of Federally Employed Women (FEW), in the Mary O. Eastwood Papers, Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe College, Cambridge.
86. For the attitude toward classified sales people, see Betsy Wade to Grace, Joan, Harriet, and Howard, 22 Aug. 1974, box 1, NYTWC; see also Glueck notes for speech. For followup, see Joan Cook, "Notes on telephone conversation with [Attorney] Harriet Rabb," 2 Apr. 1980, box 1, NYTWC. Discussion in this paragraph is based on a large number of documents in the NYTWC Papers but see in particular: the text of Elizabeth Boylan et al., Plaintiffs v. The "New York Times," Defendant, U.S. District Ct., Southern District of New York, 74 Civ. 4891, Judge Werker, and the expert witness depositions in box 1; "Betsy Wade, A Fondness for Facts," clipping of advertisement, ca. 1962, box 2; Betsy Wade to Grace Glueck and Joan Cook, 19 Aug. [1974], box 1; Betsy Wade to Yetta Riesel, 30 May 1974; Members of the Negotiating Committee to All Women at the New York Times, December 1974; also, "The Other Side of It," spring 1977, 1; [no author] "The Times Settles Sex Bias Suit Filed by Female Workers in U.S. Court," New York Times, 21 Nov. 1978, B7; Marion Knox, "Women and the Times," The Nation, 9 Dec. 1978, 635-37; typescript history, "Times Caucus," n.d. [1975], NYTWC Papers. See also Lindsay Van Gelder, "Women vs. the New York Times," Ms., September 1978, 66 ff. For another well-documented but dispersed group, see the records of Federally Employed Women (FEW), in the Mary O. Eastwood Papers, Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe College, Cambridge.
87. For the attitude toward classified sales people, see Betsy Wade to Grace, Joan, Harriet, and Howard, 22 Aug. 1974, box 1, NYTWC; see also Glueck notes for speech. For followup, see Joan Cook, "Notes on telephone conversation with [Attorney] Harriet Rabb," 2 Apr. 1980, box 1, NYTWC. Discussion in this paragraph is based on a large number of documents in the NYTWC Papers but see in particular: the text of Elizabeth Boylan et al., Plaintiffs v. The "New York Times," Defendant, U.S. District Ct., Southern District of New York, 74 Civ. 4891, Judge Werker, and the expert witness depositions in box 1; "Betsy Wade, A Fondness for Facts," clipping of advertisement, ca. 1962, box 2; Betsy Wade to Grace Glueck and Joan Cook, 19 Aug. [1974], box 1; Betsy Wade to Yetta Riesel, 30 May 1974; Members of the Negotiating Committee to All Women at the New York Times, December 1974; also, "The Other Side of It," spring 1977, 1; [no author] "The Times Settles Sex Bias Suit Filed by Female Workers in U.S. Court," New York Times, 21 Nov. 1978, B7; Marion Knox, "Women and the Times," The Nation, 9 Dec. 1978, 635-37; typescript history, "Times Caucus," n.d. [1975], NYTWC Papers. See also Lindsay Van Gelder, "Women vs. the New York Times," Ms., September 1978, 66 ff. For another well-documented but dispersed group, see the records of Federally Employed Women (FEW), in the Mary O. Eastwood Papers, Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe College, Cambridge.
88. On AT&T and steel, see O'Farrell and Kornbluh, 250-51, 257, 274;
89. On AT&T and steel, see O'Farrell and Kornbluh, 250-51, 257, 274;
90. see Welch. For CLUW's support for affirmative action and other gender-conscious policies,
91. see resolution adopted by CLUW National Coordinating Committee, Houston, 31 May 1975, box 37, Coalition of Labor Union Women Records, Archives of Labor and Urban Affairs, Wayne State University, Detroit;
92. CLUW, "Convention Call to the Third Biennial Convention of the Coalition of Labor Union Women . . . and a Conference on Affirmative Action," Chicago, 22-25 Mar. 1984, ibid.;
93. Committee to Defend Affirmative Action, "Affirmative Action: Model Resolution," box 75, ibid. For Union Women's Alliance to Gain Equality (WAGE)'s support,
94. see Foner, 500, 514, 518, also 525-27.
95. For a discussion of the securing and monitoring of affirmative action plans as the raison d'être of women's caucuses, see Carla Lofberg Valenta, "Change from Below: Forming a Women's Caucus," Women's Work 2 (October 1976): 26-31. See also Davis, 94-96. For a more general discussion of why affirmative action is necessary for women, written from the perspective of social psychology, see Susan D. Clayton and Faye J. Crosby, Justice, Gender, and Affirmative Action (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1992).
96. For a discussion of the securing and monitoring of affirmative action plans as the raison d'être of women's caucuses, see Carla Lofberg Valenta, "Change from Below: Forming a Women's Caucus," Women's Work 2 (October 1976): 26-31. See also Davis, 94-96. For a more general discussion of why affirmative action is necessary for women, written from the perspective of social psychology, see Susan D. Clayton and Faye J. Crosby, Justice, Gender, and Affirmative Action (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1992).
97. For a discussion of the securing and monitoring of affirmative action plans as the raison d'être of women's caucuses, see Carla Lofberg Valenta, "Change from Below: Forming a Women's Caucus," Women's Work 2 (October 1976): 26-31. See also Davis, 94-96. For a more general discussion of why affirmative action is necessary for women, written from the perspective of social psychology, see Susan D. Clayton and Faye J. Crosby, Justice, Gender, and Affirmative Action (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1992).
98. For a discussion of the securing and monitoring of affirmative action plans as the raison d'être of women's caucuses, see Carla Lofberg Valenta, "Change from Below: Forming a Women's Caucus," Women's Work 2 (October 1976): 26-31. See also Davis, 94-96. For a more general discussion of why affirmative action is necessary for women, written from the perspective of social psychology, see Susan D. Clayton and Faye J. Crosby, Justice, Gender, and Affirmative Action (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1992).
99. See "Fact Sheet: Boylan v. New York Times," box 1, NYTWC; press release, 6 Oct. 1978, ibid.; Welch; NOW, "Affirmative Action: The Key to Ending Job Discrimination," 28 Apr. 1971, box 44, National Organization for Women (NOW) Papers, Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe College, Cambridge; Lucy Komisar, in NOW York Woman, July 1971, 1. For the prevalence of affirmative action in major media sex-discrimination settlements, see "Sexism Scorecard." For other examples, see Ruth I. Smith [for National Association of Bank Women] to Robert J. Lipshutz, 20 Feb. 1978, box FG-183, FG 123, White House Central Files, Jimmy Carter Presidential Library, Atlanta; Susan Ells [of Polaroid] to Lynn Darcy, 20 Sept. 1974, box 18, NOW Papers.
100. See "Fact Sheet: Boylan v. New York Times," box 1, NYTWC; press release, 6 Oct. 1978, ibid.; Welch; NOW, "Affirmative Action: The Key to Ending Job Discrimination," 28 Apr. 1971, box 44, National Organization for Women (NOW) Papers, Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe College, Cambridge; Lucy Komisar, in NOW York Woman, July 1971, 1. For the prevalence of affirmative action in major media sex-discrimination settlements, see "Sexism Scorecard." For other examples, see Ruth I. Smith [for National Association of Bank Women] to Robert J. Lipshutz, 20 Feb. 1978, box FG-183, FG 123, White House Central Files, Jimmy Carter Presidential Library, Atlanta; Susan Ells [of Polaroid] to Lynn Darcy, 20 Sept. 1974, box 18, NOW Papers.
101. See "Fact Sheet: Boylan v. New York Times," box 1, NYTWC; press release, 6 Oct. 1978, ibid.; Welch; NOW, "Affirmative Action: The Key to Ending Job Discrimination," 28 Apr. 1971, box 44, National Organization for Women (NOW) Papers, Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe College, Cambridge; Lucy Komisar, in NOW York Woman, July 1971, 1. For the prevalence of affirmative action in major media sex-discrimination settlements, see "Sexism Scorecard." For other examples, see Ruth I. Smith [for National Association of Bank Women] to Robert J. Lipshutz, 20 Feb. 1978, box FG-183, FG 123, White House Central Files, Jimmy Carter Presidential Library, Atlanta; Susan Ells [of Polaroid] to Lynn Darcy, 20 Sept. 1974, box 18, NOW Papers.
102. See "Fact Sheet: Boylan v. New York Times," box 1, NYTWC; press release, 6 Oct. 1978, ibid.; Welch; NOW, "Affirmative Action: The Key to Ending Job Discrimination," 28 Apr. 1971, box 44, National Organization for Women (NOW) Papers, Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe College, Cambridge; Lucy Komisar, in NOW York Woman, July 1971, 1. For the prevalence of affirmative action in major media sex-discrimination settlements, see "Sexism Scorecard." For other examples, see Ruth I. Smith [for National Association of Bank Women] to Robert J. Lipshutz, 20 Feb. 1978, box FG-183, FG 123, White House Central Files, Jimmy Carter Presidential Library, Atlanta; Susan Ells [of Polaroid] to Lynn Darcy, 20 Sept. 1974, box 18, NOW Papers.
103. See "Fact Sheet: Boylan v. New York Times," box 1, NYTWC; press release, 6 Oct. 1978, ibid.; Welch; NOW, "Affirmative Action: The Key to Ending Job Discrimination," 28 Apr. 1971, box 44, National Organization for Women (NOW) Papers, Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe College, Cambridge; Lucy Komisar, in NOW York Woman, July 1971, 1. For the prevalence of affirmative action in major media sex-discrimination settlements, see "Sexism Scorecard." For other examples, see Ruth I. Smith [for National Association of Bank Women] to Robert J. Lipshutz, 20 Feb. 1978, box FG-183, FG 123, White House Central Files, Jimmy Carter Presidential Library, Atlanta; Susan Ells [of Polaroid] to Lynn Darcy, 20 Sept. 1974, box 18, NOW Papers.
104. Roberta Goldberg, Organizing Women Office Workers: Dissatisfaction, Consciousness, and Action (New York: Praeger, 1983), 22. See also the popular Louise Kapp Howe, Pink Color Workers: Inside the World of Women's Work (New York: Avon, 1977).
105. Roberta Goldberg, Organizing Women Office Workers: Dissatisfaction, Consciousness, and Action (New York: Praeger, 1983), 22. See also the popular Louise Kapp Howe, Pink Color Workers: Inside the World of Women's Work (New York: Avon, 1977).
106. Quotation from David Plotke, "Women Clerical Workers and Trade Unionism: Interview with Karen Nussbaum," Socialist Review, no. 49 (January-February 1980): 151. See also Tepperman, 69, 79, 81, 88; Nancy Seifer and Barbara Wertheimer, "New Approaches to Collective Power: Four Working Women's Organizations," in Women Organizing: An Anthology, ed. Bernice Cummings and Victoria Schuck (London: Scarecrow Press, 1979). For an excellent, critical history of one such office workers group, see Judith Sealander and Dorothy Smith, "The Rise and Fall of Feminist Organizations in the 1970s: Dayton as a Case Study," in Women, Class, and the Feminist Imagination: A Socialist-Feminist Reader, ed. Karen V. Hansen and Ilene J. Philipson (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1990), 239-57, originally published in Feminist Studies 12 (summer 1986): 321-41. On racial composition, see Goldberg, 41, 97.
107. Quotation from David Plotke, "Women Clerical Workers and Trade Unionism: Interview with Karen Nussbaum," Socialist Review, no. 49 (January-February 1980): 151. See also Tepperman, 69, 79, 81, 88; Nancy Seifer and Barbara Wertheimer, "New Approaches to Collective Power: Four Working Women's Organizations," in Women Organizing: An Anthology, ed. Bernice Cummings and Victoria Schuck (London: Scarecrow Press, 1979). For an excellent, critical history of one such office workers group, see Judith Sealander and Dorothy Smith, "The Rise and Fall of Feminist Organizations in the 1970s: Dayton as a Case Study," in Women, Class, and the Feminist Imagination: A Socialist-Feminist Reader, ed. Karen V. Hansen and Ilene J. Philipson (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1990), 239-57, originally published in Feminist Studies 12 (summer 1986): 321-41. On racial composition, see Goldberg, 41, 97.
108. Quotation from David Plotke, "Women Clerical Workers and Trade Unionism: Interview with Karen Nussbaum," Socialist Review, no. 49 (January-February 1980): 151. See also Tepperman, 69, 79, 81, 88; Nancy Seifer and Barbara Wertheimer, "New Approaches to Collective Power: Four Working Women's Organizations," in Women Organizing: An Anthology, ed. Bernice Cummings and Victoria Schuck (London: Scarecrow Press, 1979). For an excellent, critical history of one such office workers group, see Judith Sealander and Dorothy Smith, "The Rise and Fall of Feminist Organizations in the 1970s: Dayton as a Case Study," in Women, Class, and the Feminist Imagination: A Socialist-Feminist Reader, ed. Karen V. Hansen and Ilene J. Philipson (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1990), 239-57, originally published in Feminist Studies 12 (summer 1986): 321-41. On racial composition, see Goldberg, 41, 97.
109. Quotation from David Plotke, "Women Clerical Workers and Trade Unionism: Interview with Karen Nussbaum," Socialist Review, no. 49 (January-February 1980): 151. See also Tepperman, 69, 79, 81, 88; Nancy Seifer and Barbara Wertheimer, "New Approaches to Collective Power: Four Working Women's Organizations," in Women Organizing: An Anthology, ed. Bernice Cummings and Victoria Schuck (London: Scarecrow Press, 1979). For an excellent, critical history of one such office workers group, see Judith Sealander and Dorothy Smith, "The Rise and Fall of Feminist Organizations in the 1970s: Dayton as a Case Study," in Women, Class, and the Feminist Imagination: A Socialist-Feminist Reader, ed. Karen V. Hansen and Ilene J. Philipson (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1990), 239-57, originally published in Feminist Studies 12 (summer 1986): 321-41. On racial composition, see Goldberg, 41, 97.
110. Quotation from David Plotke, "Women Clerical Workers and Trade Unionism: Interview with Karen Nussbaum," Socialist Review, no. 49 (January-February 1980): 151. See also Tepperman, 69, 79, 81, 88; Nancy Seifer and Barbara Wertheimer, "New Approaches to Collective Power: Four Working Women's Organizations," in Women Organizing: An Anthology, ed. Bernice Cummings and Victoria Schuck (London: Scarecrow Press, 1979). For an excellent, critical history of one such office workers group, see Judith Sealander and Dorothy Smith, "The Rise and Fall of Feminist Organizations in the 1970s: Dayton as a Case Study," in Women, Class, and the Feminist Imagination: A Socialist-Feminist Reader, ed. Karen V. Hansen and Ilene J. Philipson (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1990), 239-57, originally published in Feminist Studies 12 (summer 1986): 321-41. On racial composition, see Goldberg, 41, 97.
111. Quotation from David Plotke, "Women Clerical Workers and Trade Unionism: Interview with Karen Nussbaum," Socialist Review, no. 49 (January-February 1980): 151. See also Tepperman, 69, 79, 81, 88; Nancy Seifer and Barbara Wertheimer, "New Approaches to Collective Power: Four Working Women's Organizations," in Women Organizing: An Anthology, ed. Bernice Cummings and Victoria Schuck (London: Scarecrow Press, 1979). For an excellent, critical history of one such office workers group, see Judith Sealander and Dorothy Smith, "The Rise and Fall of Feminist Organizations in the 1970s: Dayton as a Case Study," in Women, Class, and the Feminist Imagination: A Socialist-Feminist Reader, ed. Karen V. Hansen and Ilene J. Philipson (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1990), 239-57, originally published in Feminist Studies 12 (summer 1986): 321-41. On racial composition, see Goldberg, 41, 97.
112. Tepperman, 66, 81.
113. Tepperman, 66. For a fascinating recognition in the contemporary business press of clerical workers' changing attitudes, see Alfred Vogel, "Your Clerical Workers Are Ripe for Unionism," Harvard Business Review 49 (March-April 1971), reprinted in Baxandall, America's Working Women, 351-53.
114. Tepperman, 66. For a fascinating recognition in the contemporary business press of clerical workers' changing attitudes, see Alfred Vogel, "Your Clerical Workers Are Ripe for Unionism," Harvard Business Review 49 (March-April 1971), reprinted in Baxandall, America's Working Women, 351-53.
115. Tepperman, 66. For a fascinating recognition in the contemporary business press of clerical workers' changing attitudes, see Alfred Vogel, "Your Clerical Workers Are Ripe for Unionism," Harvard Business Review 49 (March-April 1971), reprinted in Baxandall, America's Working Women, 351-53.
116. Tepperman, 40, 173. Organizers of clerical workers in these years focused less on the racial dynamics of clerical work than the gender dynamics, although they often highlighted the "double discrimination" facing Black women. On Black women's growing participation in clerical work over this period (from 9.3 percent of Black women in clerical jobs in 1960, the number grew to 29.3 percent by 1980) and the special barriers to mobility they confronted, see Marilyn Power and Sam Rosenberg, "Black Female Clerical Workers: Movement toward Equality with White Women?" Industrial Relations 32 (spring 1993): 223-37.
117. Tepperman, 40, 173. Organizers of clerical workers in these years focused less on the racial dynamics of clerical work than the gender dynamics, although they often highlighted the "double discrimination" facing Black women. On Black women's growing participation in clerical work over this period (from 9.3 percent of Black women in clerical jobs in 1960, the number grew to 29.3 percent by 1980) and the special barriers to mobility they confronted, see Marilyn Power and Sam Rosenberg, "Black Female Clerical Workers: Movement toward Equality with White Women?" Industrial Relations 32 (spring 1993): 223-37.
118. Nussbaum interview, 153-56; Sealander and Smith, 245-46. For detailed reports on discrimination in banking, see Council on Economic Priorities, Economic Priorities Report, September-October 1972, 3-29; Carol S. Greenwald, "Banks Should Stop Discriminating against Women in Employment," Bankers' Magazine 155 (summer 1974): 74-79. Not all clerical workers saw affirmative action as relevant. "We decided to drop affirmative action as a waste of time," one Harvard organizer said. "In our job categories, we're basically all women, and affirmative action doesn't have any provision for a situation where the entire class of women is being discriminated against" (quoted in Tepperman, 96-97). Most of the evidence I've seen, however, points to a consensus on the value to office workers of affirmative action in conjunction with other policies.
119. Nussbaum interview, 153-56; Sealander and Smith, 245-46. For detailed reports on discrimination in banking, see Council on Economic Priorities, Economic Priorities Report, September-October 1972, 3-29; Carol S. Greenwald, "Banks Should Stop Discriminating against Women in Employment," Bankers' Magazine 155 (summer 1974): 74-79. Not all clerical workers saw affirmative action as relevant. "We decided to drop affirmative action as a waste of time," one Harvard organizer said. "In our job categories, we're basically all women, and affirmative action doesn't have any provision for a situation where the entire class of women is being discriminated against" (quoted in Tepperman, 96-97). Most of the evidence I've seen, however, points to a consensus on the value to office workers of affirmative action in conjunction with other policies.
120. Nussbaum interview, 153-56; Sealander and Smith, 245-46. For detailed reports on discrimination in banking, see Council on Economic Priorities, Economic Priorities Report, September-October 1972, 3-29; Carol S. Greenwald, "Banks Should Stop Discriminating against Women in Employment," Bankers' Magazine 155 (summer 1974): 74-79. Not all clerical workers saw affirmative action as relevant. "We decided to drop affirmative action as a waste of time," one Harvard organizer said. "In our job categories, we're basically all women, and affirmative action doesn't have any provision for a situation where the entire class of women is being discriminated against" (quoted in Tepperman, 96-97). Most of the evidence I've seen, however, points to a consensus on the value to office workers of affirmative action in conjunction with other policies.
121. Nussbaum interview, 153-56; Sealander and Smith, 245-46. For detailed reports on discrimination in banking, see Council on Economic Priorities, Economic Priorities Report, September-October 1972, 3-29; Carol S. Greenwald, "Banks Should Stop Discriminating against Women in Employment," Bankers' Magazine 155 (summer 1974): 74-79. Not all clerical workers saw affirmative action as relevant. "We decided to drop affirmative action as a waste of time," one Harvard organizer said. "In our job categories, we're basically all women, and affirmative action doesn't have any provision for a situation where the entire class of women is being discriminated against" (quoted in Tepperman, 96-97). Most of the evidence I've seen, however, points to a consensus on the value to office workers of affirmative action in conjunction with other policies.
122. See, for example, Women Employed, The Status of Equal Employment Opportunity Enforcement: An Assessment of Federal Agency Enforcement Performance - OFCCP and EEOC (Chicago: Women Employed, 1980). On the Willmar events, see Foner, 491-92.
123. See, for example, Women Employed, The Status of Equal Employment Opportunity Enforcement: An Assessment of Federal Agency Enforcement Performance - OFCCP and EEOC (Chicago: Women Employed, 1980). On the Willmar events, see Foner, 491-92.
124. On the way that office worker organizations sometimes spun off union locals, such as the Service Employees International Union Local 925 in Boston, see Nussbaum interview. For the story of one longstanding women's committee in an IUE factory local, see Alex Brown and Laurie Sheridan, "Pioneering Women's Committee Struggles with Hard Times," Labor Research Review, no. 11 (spring 1988): 63-77. See also Deborah E. Bell, "Unionized Women in State and Local Government," in Women, Work, and Protest, ed. Ruth Milkman (New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1985); Ruth Milkman, "Women Workers, Feminism, and the Labor Movement since the 1960s," in ibid.;
125. On the way that office worker organizations sometimes spun off union locals, such as the Service Employees International Union Local 925 in Boston, see Nussbaum interview. For the story of one longstanding women's committee in an IUE factory local, see Alex Brown and Laurie Sheridan, "Pioneering Women's Committee Struggles with Hard Times," Labor Research Review, no. 11 (spring 1988): 63-77. See also Deborah E. Bell, "Unionized Women in State and Local Government," in Women, Work, and Protest, ed. Ruth Milkman (New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1985); Ruth Milkman, "Women Workers, Feminism, and the Labor Movement since the 1960s," in ibid.;
126. On the way that office worker organizations sometimes spun off union locals, such as the Service Employees International Union Local 925 in Boston, see Nussbaum interview. For the story of one longstanding women's committee in an IUE factory local, see Alex Brown and Laurie Sheridan, "Pioneering Women's Committee Struggles with Hard Times," Labor Research Review, no. 11 (spring 1988): 63-77. See also Deborah E. Bell, "Unionized Women in State and Local Government," in Women, Work, and Protest, ed. Ruth Milkman (New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1985); Ruth Milkman, "Women Workers, Feminism, and the Labor Movement since the 1960s," in ibid.;
127. Union WAGE, Organize! A Working Women's Handbook (Berkeley: Union WAGE Educational Committee, September 1975).
128. Betsy Wade to Grace Glueck and Joan Cook, 19 Aug. [1974], box 1, NYTWC; Betsy Wade to Yetta Riesel, 30 May 1974, ibid.
129. "Notes on Meeting," 9 Nov. [ca. 1973], box 1, ibid. On the rigorous promotion of affirmative action by the Newspaper Guild subsequently, see Anna Padia in "Roundtable on Pay Equity and Affirmative Action," in Cobble, Women and Unions, 63-68.
130. "Notes on Meeting," 9 Nov. [ca. 1973], box 1, ibid. On the rigorous promotion of affirmative action by the Newspaper Guild subsequently, see Anna Padia in "Roundtable on Pay Equity and Affirmative Action," in Cobble, Women and Unions, 63-68.
131. National Office to National Executive Board "Affirmative Action" Committee, 9 Mar. 1979, box 49, CLUW Records. See also "IUE's Check List on Sex Discrimination," box 4, AFSCME Program Development Department Records, Archives of Labor and Urban Affairs, Wayne State University, Detroit; Winn Newman to David Brody, 13 July 1976, box 84, Center for National Policy Review Papers, Manuscripts Division, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.; Paul Jennings to John H. Powell Jr., 27 Sept. 1974, ibid.; Winn Newman and Carole W. Wilson, "The Union Role in Affirmative Action," Labor Law Journal 32 (June 1981): 322-42.
132. National Office to National Executive Board "Affirmative Action" Committee, 9 Mar. 1979, box 49, CLUW Records. See also "IUE's Check List on Sex Discrimination," box 4, AFSCME Program Development Department Records, Archives of Labor and Urban Affairs, Wayne State University, Detroit; Winn Newman to David Brody, 13 July 1976, box 84, Center for National Policy Review Papers, Manuscripts Division, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.; Paul Jennings to John H. Powell Jr., 27 Sept. 1974, ibid.; Winn Newman and Carole W. Wilson, "The Union Role in Affirmative Action," Labor Law Journal 32 (June 1981): 322-42.
133. National Office to National Executive Board "Affirmative Action" Committee, 9 Mar. 1979, box 49, CLUW Records. See also "IUE's Check List on Sex Discrimination," box 4, AFSCME Program Development Department Records, Archives of Labor and Urban Affairs, Wayne State University, Detroit; Winn Newman to David Brody, 13 July 1976, box 84, Center for National Policy Review Papers, Manuscripts Division, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.; Paul Jennings to John H. Powell Jr., 27 Sept. 1974, ibid.; Winn Newman and Carole W. Wilson, "The Union Role in Affirmative Action," Labor Law Journal 32 (June 1981): 322-42.
134. National Office to National Executive Board "Affirmative Action" Committee, 9 Mar. 1979, box 49, CLUW Records. See also "IUE's Check List on Sex Discrimination," box 4, AFSCME Program Development Department Records, Archives of Labor and Urban Affairs, Wayne State University, Detroit; Winn Newman to David Brody, 13 July 1976, box 84, Center for National Policy Review Papers, Manuscripts Division, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.; Paul Jennings to John H. Powell Jr., 27 Sept. 1974, ibid.; Winn Newman and Carole W. Wilson, "The Union Role in Affirmative Action," Labor Law Journal 32 (June 1981): 322-42.
135. National Office to National Executive Board "Affirmative Action" Committee, 9 Mar. 1979, box 49, CLUW Records. See also "IUE's Check List on Sex Discrimination," box 4, AFSCME Program Development Department Records, Archives of Labor and Urban Affairs, Wayne State University, Detroit; Winn Newman to David Brody, 13 July 1976, box 84, Center for National Policy Review Papers, Manuscripts Division, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.; Paul Jennings to John H. Powell Jr., 27 Sept. 1974, ibid.; Winn Newman and Carole W. Wilson, "The Union Role in Affirmative Action," Labor Law Journal 32 (June 1981): 322-42.
136. See, for example, "Black Women in the Labor Movement: Interviews with Clara Day and Johnnie Jackson," Labor Research Review, no. 11 (spring 1988): 80, 82. The best single reference on CLUW, the Coalition of Black Trade Unionists, and Union WAGE, another labor women's group, is Foner, 506, 497-501. On the latter's support for affirmative action, see "Purpose and Goals," Organize! A Working Women's Handbook, 21.
137. See, for example, "Black Women in the Labor Movement: Interviews with Clara Day and Johnnie Jackson," Labor Research Review, no. 11 (spring 1988): 80, 82. The best single reference on CLUW, the Coalition of Black Trade Unionists, and Union WAGE, another labor women's group, is Foner, 506, 497-501. On the latter's support for affirmative action, see "Purpose and Goals," Organize! A Working Women's Handbook, 21.
138. See, for example, "Black Women in the Labor Movement: Interviews with Clara Day and Johnnie Jackson," Labor Research Review, no. 11 (spring 1988): 80, 82. The best single reference on CLUW, the Coalition of Black Trade Unionists, and Union WAGE, another labor women's group, is Foner, 506, 497-501. On the latter's support for affirmative action, see "Purpose and Goals," Organize! A Working Women's Handbook, 21.
139. David Montgomery, Workers' Control in America: Studies in the History of Work, Technology, and Labor Struggles (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1979), 13. See also Freeman. Although the focus here is on wage-earning jobs, working-class men were by no means alone or singular in their resistance to women's entry into their occupations. For the hostility of male lawyers, which the authors attribute to "a distinctive professional ethos," see Bradley Soule and Kay Standley, "Perceptions of Sex Discrimination in Law," American Bar Association Journal 59 (October 1973): 1144-47, quotation on 1147.
140. David Montgomery, Workers' Control in America: Studies in the History of Work, Technology, and Labor Struggles (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1979), 13. See also Freeman. Although the focus here is on wage-earning jobs, working-class men were by no means alone or singular in their resistance to women's entry into their occupations. For the hostility of male lawyers, which the authors attribute to "a distinctive professional ethos," see Bradley Soule and Kay Standley, "Perceptions of Sex Discrimination in Law," American Bar Association Journal 59 (October 1973): 1144-47, quotation on 1147.
141. David Montgomery, Workers' Control in America: Studies in the History of Work, Technology, and Labor Struggles (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1979), 13. See also Freeman. Although the focus here is on wage-earning jobs, working-class men were by no means alone or singular in their resistance to women's entry into their occupations. For the hostility of male lawyers, which the authors attribute to "a distinctive professional ethos," see Bradley Soule and Kay Standley, "Perceptions of Sex Discrimination in Law," American Bar Association Journal 59 (October 1973): 1144-47, quotation on 1147.
142. "The Best Jobs for Women in the Eighties," Woman's Day, 15 Jan. 1980, box 1, United Tradeswomen Records, Robert F. Wagner Labor Archives, New York University, New York; Judy Heffner, "A Conversation with Barbara Bergmann," Women's Work, March-April 1977, 12. For elaboration of the economic argument for affirmative action for women, see Barbara R. Bergmann, The Economic Emergence of Women (New York: Basic Books, 1986), 146-72.
143. "The Best Jobs for Women in the Eighties," Woman's Day, 15 Jan. 1980, box 1, United Tradeswomen Records, Robert F. Wagner Labor Archives, New York University, New York; Judy Heffner, "A Conversation with Barbara Bergmann," Women's Work, March-April 1977, 12. For elaboration of the economic argument for affirmative action for women, see Barbara R. Bergmann, The Economic Emergence of Women (New York: Basic Books, 1986), 146-72.
144. "The Best Jobs for Women in the Eighties," Woman's Day, 15 Jan. 1980, box 1, United Tradeswomen Records, Robert F. Wagner Labor Archives, New York University, New York; Judy Heffner, "A Conversation with Barbara Bergmann," Women's Work, March-April 1977, 12. For elaboration of the economic argument for affirmative action for women, see Barbara R. Bergmann, The Economic Emergence of Women (New York: Basic Books, 1986), 146-72.
145. An example with major ramifications was the case of Lorena Weeks, who, after almost twenty years of "exemplary" service as a telephone operator, applied for the position of "switchman" in 1966, only to be denied it because she was a woman and then harassed for protesting her exclusion. Weeks went on to sue Southern Bell and assist the EEOC's landmark action against AT&T. See New York NOW, press release, 29 Mar. 1971, box 627, Bella Abzug Papers, Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Columbia University, New York. For other examples of spontaneous moves into nontraditional work, see Michael Jett, "The Return of Rosie," Wall Street Journal, 16 Apr. 1973, 1; also Lucille De View, "Women Move Up the Blue Collar Ladder," Detroit News, 23 July 1972. Their stories are not without irony: some of the women in this story took these jobs so that they could afford to send their children to parochial school - presumably, in part to get away from now-integrated public schools. Why the construction industry became the target is explained in Jane P. Fleming to William Taylor, 29 Jan. 1980, box 30, Center for National Policy Review Papers.
146. An example with major ramifications was the case of Lorena Weeks, who, after almost twenty years of "exemplary" service as a telephone operator, applied for the position of "switchman" in 1966, only to be denied it because she was a woman and then harassed for protesting her exclusion. Weeks went on to sue Southern Bell and assist the EEOC's landmark action against AT&T. See New York NOW, press release, 29 Mar. 1971, box 627, Bella Abzug Papers, Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Columbia University, New York. For other examples of spontaneous moves into nontraditional work, see Michael Jett, "The Return of Rosie," Wall Street Journal, 16 Apr. 1973, 1; also Lucille De View, "Women Move Up the Blue Collar Ladder," Detroit News, 23 July 1972. Their stories are not without irony: some of the women in this story took these jobs so that they could afford to send their children to parochial school - presumably, in part to get away from now-integrated public schools. Why the construction industry became the target is explained in Jane P. Fleming to William Taylor, 29 Jan. 1980, box 30, Center for National Policy Review Papers.
147. Rebecca A. Mills to Anne L. Armstrong, 11 July 1973, box 58, Anne L. Armstrong Papers, Nixon Presidential Materials; Dorothea Hernandez to Joe O'Connell, 25 June 1974, box 19, ibid. On Revised Order No. 4, see Department of Labor, press release, 2 Dec. 1971, box 86, Leonard Garment Papers, Staff Member Office Files, Nixon Presidential Materials. For a fuller sense of such organizations, see the United Tradeswomen Records, Robert F. Wagner Labor Archives.
148. Rebecca A. Mills to Anne L. Armstrong, 11 July 1973, box 58, Anne L. Armstrong Papers, Nixon Presidential Materials; Dorothea Hernandez to Joe O'Connell, 25 June 1974, box 19, ibid. On Revised Order No. 4, see Department of Labor, press release, 2 Dec. 1971, box 86, Leonard Garment Papers, Staff Member Office Files, Nixon Presidential Materials. For a fuller sense of such organizations, see the United Tradeswomen Records, Robert F. Wagner Labor Archives.
149. Rebecca A. Mills to Anne L. Armstrong, 11 July 1973, box 58, Anne L. Armstrong Papers, Nixon Presidential Materials; Dorothea Hernandez to Joe O'Connell, 25 June 1974, box 19, ibid. On Revised Order No. 4, see Department of Labor, press release, 2 Dec. 1971, box 86, Leonard Garment Papers, Staff Member Office Files, Nixon Presidential Materials. For a fuller sense of such organizations, see the United Tradeswomen Records, Robert F. Wagner Labor Archives.
150. Rebecca A. Mills to Anne L. Armstrong, 11 July 1973, box 58, Anne L. Armstrong Papers, Nixon Presidential Materials; Dorothea Hernandez to Joe O'Connell, 25 June 1974, box 19, ibid. On Revised Order No. 4, see Department of Labor, press release, 2 Dec. 1971, box 86, Leonard Garment Papers, Staff Member Office Files, Nixon Presidential Materials. For a fuller sense of such organizations, see the United Tradeswomen Records, Robert F. Wagner Labor Archives.
151. WOW, introductory letter, October 1966, box 6, Wider Opportunities for Women Papers, Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe College, Cambridge; WOW, "Preliminary Proposal: Jobs 70," 15 Aug. 1972, box 3, ibid. Rated "the most effective employment program in the city" by the head of Superior Court Adult Services in the District of Columbia, the ex-offender program is described in Kevin Bellows and Beryl Lieff Benderly, "WOW Spells Work (Not Whistles) for Women," brochure reprinted from an article in Working magazine, box 6, ibid. An analogous radicalization was taking part in the National Council of Negro Women, from, in the words of its leader, Dorothy Height, a "social club mentality" to "a new and more profound social awareness" that aimed "to make the Council into an effective organization for the black community." See Thomas W. Wahman to Rockefeller Brothers Fund Files, 5 Nov. 1969, box 70, Rockefeller Brothers Fund Papers, Rockefeller Archive Center, North Tarrytown, New York.
152. For details of their efforts, see Wider Opportunities for Women, National Directory of Women's Employment Programs: Who They Are, What They Do, box 2, WOW Papers; Women's Work Force, "New Connections," Network Conference Report (Washington, D.C., 21-23 May 1979), box 2, ibid.; Betsy Cooley et al. to Weldon J. Rougeau, 16 Nov. 1979, box 1, ibid.; Maureen Thornton to Betsy Cooley, 1 Nov. 1979, box 18, ibid.
153. For details of their efforts, see Wider Opportunities for Women, National Directory of Women's Employment Programs: Who They Are, What They Do, box 2, WOW Papers; Women's Work Force, "New Connections," Network Conference Report (Washington, D.C., 21-23 May 1979), box 2, ibid.; Betsy Cooley et al. to Weldon J. Rougeau, 16 Nov. 1979, box 1, ibid.; Maureen Thornton to Betsy Cooley, 1 Nov. 1979, box 18, ibid.
154. For details of their efforts, see Wider Opportunities for Women, National Directory of Women's Employment Programs: Who They Are, What They Do, box 2, WOW Papers; Women's Work Force, "New Connections," Network Conference
155. For details of their efforts, see Wider Opportunities for Women, National Directory of Women's Employment Programs: Who They Are, What They Do, box 2, WOW Papers; Women's Work Force, "New Connections," Network Conference Report (Washington, D.C., 21-23 May 1979), box 2, ibid.; Betsy Cooley et al. to Weldon J. Rougeau, 16 Nov. 1979, box 1, ibid.; Maureen Thornton to Betsy Cooley, 1 Nov. 1979, box 18, ibid.
156. "Demonstrate to Demand Construction jobs for Women!" box 1, United Tradeswomen Records, 5 Aug. 1981; United Trades Newsletter 1 (fall 1980): 2, ibid.; February 1983, 1-9, ibid; Bernice Fisher, "United Tradeswomen Going beyond Affirmative Action" Womanews (March [1981]), ibid. Such efforts notwithstanding, white women ended up with a disproportionate share of skilled construction jobs, a pattern that needs explanation. See Deborah M. Figart and Ellen Mutari, "Gender Segmentation of Craft Workers by Race in the 1970s and 1980s," Review of Radical Political Economics 25, no. 1 (1993): 50-66.
157. "Demonstrate to Demand Construction jobs for Women!" box 1, United Tradeswomen Records, 5 Aug. 1981; United Trades Newsletter 1 (fall 1980): 2, ibid.; February 1983, 1-9, ibid; Bernice Fisher, "United Tradeswomen Going beyond Affirmative Action" Womanews (March [1981]), ibid. Such efforts notwithstanding, white women ended up with a disproportionate share of skilled construction jobs, a pattern that needs explanation. See Deborah M. Figart and Ellen Mutari, "Gender Segmentation of Craft Workers by Race in the 1970s and 1980s," Review of Radical Political Economics 25, no. 1 (1993): 50-66.
158. "Demonstrate to Demand Construction jobs for Women!" box 1, United Tradeswomen Records, 5 Aug. 1981; United Trades Newsletter 1 (fall 1980): 2, ibid.; February 1983, 1-9, ibid; Bernice Fisher, "United Tradeswomen Going beyond Affirmative Action" Womanews (March [1981]), ibid. Such efforts notwithstanding, white women ended up with a disproportionate share of skilled construction jobs, a pattern that needs explanation. See Deborah M. Figart and Ellen Mutari, "Gender Segmentation of Craft Workers by Race in the 1970s and 1980s," Review of Radical Political Economics 25, no. 1 (1993): 50-66.
159. "Demonstrate to Demand Construction jobs for Women!" box 1, United Tradeswomen Records, 5 Aug. 1981; United Trades Newsletter 1 (fall 1980): 2, ibid.; February 1983, 1-9, ibid; Bernice Fisher, "United Tradeswomen Going beyond Affirmative Action" Womanews (March [1981]), ibid. Such efforts notwithstanding, white women ended up with a disproportionate share of skilled construction jobs, a pattern that needs explanation. See Deborah M. Figart and Ellen Mutari, "Gender Segmentation of Craft Workers by Race in the 1970s and 1980s," Review of Radical Political Economics 25, no. 1 (1993): 50-66.
160. "Demonstrate to Demand Construction jobs for Women!" box 1, United Tradeswomen Records, 5 Aug. 1981; United Trades Newsletter 1 (fall 1980): 2, ibid.; February 1983, 1-9, ibid; Bernice Fisher, "United Tradeswomen Going beyond Affirmative Action" Womanews (March [1981]), ibid. Such efforts notwithstanding, white women ended up with a disproportionate share of skilled construction jobs, a pattern that needs explanation. See Deborah M. Figart and Ellen Mutari, "Gender Segmentation of Craft Workers by Race in the 1970s and 1980s," Review of Radical Political Economics 25, no. 1 (1993): 50-66.
161. Coal Employment Project, brochure from Fifth National Conference of Women Coal Miners, 24-25 June 1983, Dawson, Pennsylvania (materials in author's possession); Coal Mining Women's Support Team News 1 (September-October 1978): 4, box 76, CLUW Papers; Christine Doudna, "Blue Collar Women," Foundation News, March/April 1983, 40-44, box 25, WOW Papers; quotations from Dorothy Gallagher, "The Women Who Work in the Mines," Redbook, June 1980, 29, 139. Similar reports came from Chicana copper miners in Arizona, suggesting commonalities across race and region in the ways women experienced the move into "men's work." See Barbara Kingsolver, Holding the Line: Women in the Great Arizona Mine Strike of 1983 (Ithaca, N.Y: ILR Press, 1989), 73-96.
162. Coal Employment Project, brochure from Fifth National Conference of Women Coal Miners, 24-25 June 1983, Dawson, Pennsylvania (materials in author's possession); Coal Mining Women's Support Team News 1 (September-October 1978): 4, box 76, CLUW Papers; Christine Doudna, "Blue Collar Women," Foundation News, March/April 1983, 40-44, box 25, WOW Papers; quotations from Dorothy Gallagher, "The Women Who Work in the Mines," Redbook, June 1980, 29, 139. Similar reports came from Chicana copper miners in Arizona, suggesting commonalities across race and region in the ways women experienced the move into "men's work." See Barbara Kingsolver, Holding the Line: Women in the Great Arizona Mine Strike of 1983 (Ithaca, N.Y: ILR Press, 1989), 73-96.
163. Coal Employment Project, brochure from Fifth National Conference of Women Coal Miners, 24-25 June 1983, Dawson, Pennsylvania (materials in author's possession); Coal Mining Women's Support Team News 1 (September-October 1978): 4, box 76, CLUW Papers; Christine Doudna, "Blue Collar Women," Foundation News, March/April 1983, 40-44, box 25, WOW Papers; quotations from Dorothy Gallagher, "The Women Who Work in the Mines," Redbook, June 1980, 29, 139. Similar reports came from Chicana copper miners in Arizona, suggesting commonalities across race and region in the ways women experienced the move into "men's work." See Barbara Kingsolver, Holding the Line: Women in the Great Arizona Mine Strike of 1983 (Ithaca, N.Y: ILR Press, 1989), 73-96.
164. Coal Employment Project, brochure from Fifth National Conference of Women Coal Miners, 24-25 June 1983, Dawson, Pennsylvania (materials in author's possession); Coal Mining Women's Support Team News 1 (September-October 1978): 4, box 76, CLUW Papers; Christine Doudna, "Blue Collar Women," Foundation News, March/April 1983, 40-44, box 25, WOW Papers; quotations from Dorothy Gallagher, "The Women Who Work in the Mines," Redbook, June 1980, 29, 139. Similar reports came from Chicana copper miners in Arizona, suggesting commonalities across race and region in the ways women experienced the move into "men's work." See Barbara Kingsolver, Holding the Line: Women in the Great Arizona Mine Strike of 1983 (Ithaca, N.Y: ILR Press, 1989), 73-96.
165. Coal Employment Project, brochure from Fifth National Conference of Women Coal Miners, 24-25 June 1983, Dawson, Pennsylvania (materials in author's possession); Coal Mining Women's Support Team News 1 (September-October 1978): 4, box 76, CLUW Papers; Christine Doudna, "Blue Collar Women," Foundation News, March/April 1983, 40-44, box 25, WOW Papers; quotations from Dorothy Gallagher, "The Women Who Work in the Mines," Redbook, June 1980, 29, 139. Similar reports came from Chicana copper miners in Arizona, suggesting commonalities across race and region in the ways women experienced the move into "men's work." See Barbara Kingsolver, Holding the Line: Women in the Great Arizona Mine Strike of 1983 (Ithaca, N.Y: ILR Press, 1989), 73-96.
166. For explicit criticism of "the Moynihan Effect" on women's employment opportunities, see Ann Scott and Lucy Komisar, . . . And Justice for All: Federal Equal Opportunity Effort against Sex Discrimination (Chicago: NOW, 1971 ), 14. For an example of how such thinking created fear about women's disproportionate progress among Puerto Ricans, see "The Puerto Rican Community Development Project: A Proposal for a Self-Help Project to Develop the Community by Strengthening the Family. . ." (New York: Puerto Rican Forum, 1964), 54. Fifteen years later, a new analysis of Puerto Rican New Yorkers reached opposite conclusions: "the employment of the female head-of-household," one important study explained, "is the only viable mechanism for lifting the family above the poverty line." Lynn Angel Morgan, "Access to Training Programs: Barriers Encountered by Hispanic Female Heads-of-Households in New York City" (New York: PRLDEF, 1981), 3, in Administrative Division Records, box 8, Puerto Rican Legal Defense and Education Fund, Centro de Estudios Puertorriquenos, Hunter College, City University of New York, New York.
167. See, for example, WOW Papers, "Preliminary Proposal: Jobs 70," 15 Aug. 1972, box 3, WOW Papers; Anna Brickle, quoted in Schroedel, 191. For related, earlier Black women's social thought, see Linda Gordon, "Black and White Visions of Welfare: Women's Welfare Activism, 1890-1945," Journal of American History 78 (September 1991): 559-90.
168. See, for example, WOW Papers, "Preliminary Proposal: Jobs 70," 15 Aug. 1972, box 3, WOW Papers; Anna Brickle, quoted in Schroedel, 191. For related, earlier Black women's social thought, see Linda Gordon, "Black and White Visions of Welfare: Women's Welfare Activism, 1890-1945," Journal of American History 78 (September 1991): 559-90.
169. Gallagher, 139. See also Laura Berman, "The Struggles of Tradeswomen," Detroit Free Press, 26 Aug. 1979, box 9, CLUW Records. Such testimony supports Alice Kessler-Harris's case that "the wage . . . contains within it a set of social messages and a system of meanings that influence the way women and men behave." See Alice Kessler-Harris, A Woman's Wage: Historical Meanings and Social Consequences (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1990), 7.
170. Gallagher, 139. See also Laura Berman, "The Struggles of Tradeswomen," Detroit Free Press, 26 Aug. 1979, box 9, CLUW Records. Such testimony supports Alice Kessler-Harris's case that "the wage . . . contains within it a set of social messages and a system of meanings that influence the way women and men behave." See Alice Kessler-Harris, A Woman's Wage: Historical Meanings and Social Consequences (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1990), 7.
171. Gallagher, 139. See also Laura Berman, "The Struggles of Tradeswomen," Detroit Free Press, 26 Aug. 1979, box 9, CLUW Records. Such testimony supports Alice Kessler-Harris's case that "the wage . . . contains within it a set of social messages and a system of meanings that influence the way women and men behave." See Alice Kessler-Harris, A Woman's Wage: Historical Meanings and Social Consequences (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1990), 7.
172. Bonnie Halascsak, interview, in Nancy Seifer, ed., Nobody Speaks for Me: Self-Portraits of American Working-Class Women (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1976), 290. For more first-person testimony along the same lines, see Hard-Hatted Women: Stories of Struggle and Success in the Trades, ed. Molly Martin (Seattle: Seal Press, 1988). Women who became active in office worker organizations in one study "uniformly" reported analogous changes, most notably increased self-confidence and political awareness. See Goldberg, 54.
173. Bonnie Halascsak, interview, in Nancy Seifer, ed., Nobody Speaks for Me: Self-Portraits of American Working-Class Women (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1976), 290. For more first-person testimony along the same lines, see Hard-Hatted Women: Stories of Struggle and Success in the Trades, ed. Molly Martin (Seattle: Seal Press, 1988). Women who became active in office worker organizations in one study "uniformly" reported analogous changes, most notably increased self-confidence and political awareness. See Goldberg, 54.
174. Bonnie Halascsak, interview, in Nancy Seifer, ed., Nobody Speaks for Me: Self-Portraits of American Working-Class Women (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1976), 290. For more first-person testimony along the same lines, see Hard-Hatted Women: Stories of Struggle and Success in the Trades, ed. Molly Martin (Seattle: Seal Press, 1988). Women who became active in office worker organizations in one study "uniformly" reported analogous changes, most notably increased self-confidence and political awareness. See Goldberg, 54.
175. Quoted in Bellows and Benderly. For other such stories, see Denver Post, 8 Mar. 1987, 3F; Capital Spotlight, 23 Apr. 1987, 9.
176. Quoted in Bellows and Benderly. For other such stories, see Denver Post, 8 Mar. 1987, 3F; Capital Spotlight, 23 Apr. 1987, 9.
177. Gallagher, 131; Schroedel, 40, 70, 116-17, 129-30, 191, 213-15, 261-62. See also Mary Lindenstein Walshok, Blue-Collar Women: Pioneers on the Male Frontier (Garden City, N.Y.: Anchor Press, 1981), 139-53, 256-61, 276; Kay Deaux and Joseph C. Ullman, Women of Steel: Female Blue-Collar Workers in the Basic Steel Industry (New York: Praeger, 1983), 128-46. On the sense of loss of female camaraderie, see Pamela Sugiman, Labour's Dilemma: The Gender Politics of Auto Workers in Canada, 1937-1979 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1994), 194.
178. Gallagher, 131; Schroedel, 40, 70, 116-17, 129-30, 191, 213-15, 261-62. See also Mary Lindenstein Walshok, Blue-Collar Women: Pioneers on the Male Frontier (Garden City, N.Y.: Anchor Press, 1981), 139-53, 256-61, 276; Kay Deaux and Joseph C. Ullman, Women of Steel: Female Blue-Collar Workers in the Basic Steel Industry (New York: Praeger, 1983), 128-46. On the sense of loss of female camaraderie, see Pamela Sugiman, Labour's Dilemma: The Gender Politics of Auto Workers in Canada, 1937-1979 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1994), 194.
179. Gallagher, 131; Schroedel, 40, 70, 116-17, 129-30, 191, 213-15, 261-62. See also Mary Lindenstein Walshok, Blue-Collar Women: Pioneers on the Male Frontier (Garden City, N.Y.: Anchor Press, 1981), 139-53, 256-61, 276; Kay Deaux and Joseph C. Ullman, Women of Steel: Female Blue-Collar Workers in the Basic Steel Industry (New York: Praeger, 1983), 128-46. On the sense of loss of female camaraderie, see Pamela Sugiman, Labour's Dilemma: The Gender Politics of Auto Workers in Canada, 1937-1979 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1994), 194.
180. Gallagher, 131; Schroedel, 40, 70, 116-17, 129-30, 191, 213-15, 261-62. See also Mary Lindenstein Walshok, Blue-Collar Women: Pioneers on the Male Frontier (Garden City, N.Y.: Anchor Press, 1981), 139-53, 256-61, 276; Kay Deaux and Joseph C. Ullman, Women of Steel: Female Blue-Collar Workers in the Basic Steel Industry (New York: Praeger, 1983), 128-46. On the sense of loss of female camaraderie, see Pamela Sugiman, Labour's Dilemma: The Gender Politics of Auto Workers in Canada, 1937-1979 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1994), 194.
181. Gallagher, 131; Schroedel, 40, 70, 116-17, 129-30, 191, 213-15, 261-62. See also Mary Lindenstein Walshok, Blue-Collar Women: Pioneers on the Male Frontier (Garden City, N.Y.: Anchor Press, 1981), 139-53, 256-61, 276; Kay Deaux and Joseph C. Ullman, Women of Steel: Female Blue-Collar Workers in the Basic Steel Industry (New York: Praeger, 1983), 128-46. On the sense of loss of female camaraderie, see Pamela Sugiman, Labour's Dilemma: The Gender Politics of Auto Workers in Canada, 1937-1979 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1994), 194.
182. Quoted in Schroedel, 20-21, also 38-39, 259; Swerdlow, 273-87; Doudna, 42.
183. Quoted in Schroedel, 20-21, also 38-39, 259; Swerdlow, 273-87; Doudna, 42.
184. Quoted in Schroedel, 20-21, also 38-39, 259; Swerdlow, 273-87; Doudna, 42.
185. Doudna, 43; Cosby Totten, Goldie Totten, and June Rostan, "Women Miners' Fight for Parental Leave," Labor Research Review 7 (spring 1988): 89-95, esp. 93.
186. Doudna, 43; Cosby Totten, Goldie Totten, and June Rostan, "Women Miners' Fight for Parental Leave," Labor Research Review 7 (spring 1988): 89-95, esp. 93.
187. Women Employed, Status of Equal Employment Opportunity Enforcement, 40; Davis, 93-94; "Fighting Sexism on the Job" (document from a women's struggle in the United Steelworkers, with special emphasis on the victimization of Black women at Great Lakes Steel), in America's Working Women, 373-74. For WOW's internal affirmative action efforts, see Affirmative Action Committee, minutes, 22 Sept. 1974, box 9, WOW Papers, and ibid., 19 Sept. 1974. For the problem of white domination in women office worker organizations, see Sealander and Smith, 252.
188. Women Employed, Status of Equal Employment Opportunity Enforcement, 40; Davis, 93-94; "Fighting Sexism on the Job" (document from a women's struggle in the United Steelworkers, with special emphasis on the victimization of Black women at Great Lakes Steel), in America's Working Women, 373-74. For WOW's internal affirmative action efforts, see Affirmative Action Committee, minutes, 22 Sept. 1974, box 9, WOW Papers, and ibid., 19 Sept. 1974. For the problem of white domination in women office worker organizations, see Sealander and Smith, 252.
189. Women Employed, Status of Equal Employment Opportunity Enforcement, 40; Davis, 93-94; "Fighting Sexism on the Job" (document from a women's struggle in the United Steelworkers, with special emphasis on the victimization of Black women at Great Lakes Steel), in America's Working Women, 373-74. For WOW's internal affirmative action efforts, see Affirmative Action Committee, minutes, 22 Sept. 1974, box 9, WOW Papers, and ibid., 19 Sept. 1974. For the problem of white domination in women office worker organizations, see Sealander and Smith, 252.
190. Women Employed, Status of Equal Employment Opportunity Enforcement, 40; Davis, 93-94; "Fighting Sexism on the Job" (document from a women's struggle in the United Steelworkers, with special emphasis on the victimization of Black women at Great Lakes Steel), in America's Working Women, 373-74. For WOW's internal affirmative action efforts, see Affirmative Action Committee, minutes, 22 Sept. 1974, box 9, WOW Papers, and ibid., 19 Sept. 1974. For the problem of white domination in women office worker organizations, see Sealander and Smith, 252.
191. Women Employed, Status of Equal Employment Opportunity Enforcement, 40; Davis, 93-94; "Fighting Sexism on the Job" (document from a women's struggle in the United Steelworkers, with special emphasis on the victimization of Black women at Great Lakes Steel), in America's Working Women, 373-74. For WOW's internal affirmative action efforts, see Affirmative Action Committee, minutes, 22 Sept. 1974, box 9, WOW Papers, and ibid., 19 Sept. 1974. For the problem of white domination in women office worker organizations, see Sealander and Smith, 252.
192. See, for example, "To All Women at the New York Times," Dec. 1974, box 1, NYTWC; "The Other Side of It," 2, ibid.; Patricia M. Vasquez to Eva Freund, 22 Sept. 1975, RG V, box 38, Mexican American Legal Defense and Education Fund (hereafter MALDEF) Papers, Special Collections, Stanford University, Palo Alto, California; Patricia M. Vasquez to Joan Suarez, 9 Oct. 1975, ibid.; Patricia M. Vasquez to Vilma Martinez, 21 Oct. 1975, ibid.; Women Employed, Status of Equal Opportunity, 21-23; on AT&T and steel, see Foner, 493-94, 541-43.
193. See, for example, "To All Women at the New York Times," Dec. 1974, box 1, NYTWC; "The Other Side of It," 2, ibid.; Patricia M. Vasquez to Eva Freund, 22 Sept. 1975, RG V, box 38, Mexican American Legal Defense and Education Fund (hereafter MALDEF) Papers, Special Collections, Stanford University, Palo Alto, California; Patricia M. Vasquez to Joan Suarez, 9 Oct. 1975, ibid.; Patricia M. Vasquez to Vilma Martinez, 21 Oct. 1975, ibid.; Women Employed, Status of Equal Opportunity, 21-23; on AT&T and steel, see Foner, 493-94, 541-43.
194. See, for example, "To All Women at the New York Times," Dec. 1974, box 1, NYTWC; "The Other Side of It," 2, ibid.; Patricia M. Vasquez to Eva Freund, 22 Sept. 1975, RG V, box 38, Mexican American Legal Defense and Education Fund (hereafter MALDEF) Papers, Special Collections, Stanford University, Palo Alto, California; Patricia M. Vasquez to Joan Suarez, 9 Oct. 1975, ibid.; Patricia M. Vasquez to Vilma Martinez, 21 Oct. 1975, ibid.; Women Employed, Status of Equal Opportunity, 21-23; on AT&T and steel, see Foner, 493-94, 541-43.
195. See, for example, "To All Women at the New York Times," Dec. 1974, box 1, NYTWC; "The Other Side of It," 2, ibid.; Patricia M. Vasquez to Eva Freund, 22 Sept. 1975, RG V, box 38, Mexican American Legal Defense and Education Fund (hereafter MALDEF) Papers, Special Collections, Stanford University, Palo Alto, California; Patricia M. Vasquez to Joan Suarez, 9 Oct. 1975, ibid.; Patricia M. Vasquez to Vilma Martinez, 21 Oct. 1975, ibid.; Women Employed, Status of Equal Opportunity, 21-23; on AT&T and steel, see Foner, 493-94, 541-43.
196. See, for example, "To All Women at the New York Times," Dec. 1974, box 1, NYTWC; "The Other Side of It," 2, ibid.; Patricia M. Vasquez to Eva Freund, 22 Sept. 1975, RG V, box 38, Mexican American Legal Defense and Education Fund (hereafter MALDEF) Papers, Special Collections, Stanford University, Palo Alto, California; Patricia M. Vasquez to Joan Suarez, 9 Oct. 1975, ibid.; Patricia M. Vasquez to Vilma Martinez, 21 Oct. 1975, ibid.; Women Employed, Status of Equal Opportunity, 21-23; on AT&T and steel, see Foner, 493-94, 541-43.
197. See, for example, "To All Women at the New York Times," Dec. 1974, box 1, NYTWC; "The Other Side of It," 2, ibid.; Patricia M. Vasquez to Eva Freund, 22 Sept. 1975, RG V, box 38, Mexican American Legal Defense and Education Fund (hereafter MALDEF) Papers, Special Collections, Stanford University, Palo Alto, California; Patricia M. Vasquez to Joan Suarez, 9 Oct. 1975, ibid.; Patricia M. Vasquez to Vilma Martinez, 21 Oct. 1975, ibid.; Women Employed, Status of Equal Opportunity, 21-23; on AT&T and steel, see Foner, 493-94, 541-43.
198. See, for example, "To All Women at the New York Times," Dec. 1974, box 1, NYTWC; "The Other Side of It," 2, ibid.; Patricia M. Vasquez to Eva Freund, 22 Sept. 1975, RG V, box 38, Mexican American Legal Defense and Education Fund (hereafter MALDEF) Papers, Special Collections, Stanford University, Palo Alto, California; Patricia M. Vasquez to Joan Suarez, 9 Oct. 1975, ibid.; Patricia M. Vasquez to Vilma Martinez, 21 Oct. 1975, ibid.; Women Employed, Status of Equal Opportunity, 21-23; on AT&T and steel, see Foner, 493-94, 541-43.
199. Ann Ladky to Lynn Darcy, 12 Sept. 1974, box 20, NOW Papers. See also A Decade of Feminism: Chicago NOW Highlights of the 1970s (Chicago: National Organization for Women, Chicago Chapter, n.d.). On construction, see, for example, Jane Fleming to William Taylor, 29 Jan. 1980, box 30, CNPR Papers; Clinton Cox, "Fight Back Goes After Construction Jobs," New York Sunday News Magazine, 25 Sept. 1977, reprint in box 8, James Haughton Papers, Schomburg Library; Cleveland Women Working, Cleveland's Banking Industry: Affirmative Action or Inaction? (Cleveland: Cleveland Women Working, 1978); "The General Mills Story," [1973], box 15, NOW Papers; Betty Geyer to Joel Contreras, 27 Oct. 1978, RG V, box 163, MALDEF Papers.
200. Ann Ladky to Lynn Darcy, 12 Sept. 1974, box 20, NOW Papers. See also A Decade of Feminism: Chicago NOW Highlights of the 1970s (Chicago: National Organization for Women, Chicago Chapter, n.d.). On construction, see, for example, Jane Fleming to William Taylor, 29 Jan. 1980, box 30, CNPR Papers; Clinton Cox, "Fight Back Goes After Construction Jobs," New York Sunday News Magazine, 25 Sept. 1977, reprint in box 8, James Haughton Papers, Schomburg Library; Cleveland Women Working, Cleveland's Banking Industry: Affirmative Action or Inaction? (Cleveland: Cleveland Women Working, 1978); "The General Mills Story," [1973], box 15, NOW Papers; Betty Geyer to Joel Contreras, 27 Oct. 1978, RG V, box 163, MALDEF Papers.
201. Ann Ladky to Lynn Darcy, 12 Sept. 1974, box 20, NOW Papers. See also A Decade of Feminism: Chicago NOW Highlights of the 1970s (Chicago: National Organization for Women, Chicago Chapter, n.d.). On construction, see, for example, Jane Fleming to William Taylor, 29 Jan. 1980, box 30, CNPR Papers; Clinton Cox, "Fight Back Goes After Construction Jobs," New York Sunday News Magazine, 25 Sept. 1977, reprint in box 8, James Haughton Papers, Schomburg Library; Cleveland Women Working, Cleveland's Banking Industry: Affirmative Action or Inaction? (Cleveland: Cleveland Women Working, 1978); "The General Mills Story," [1973], box 15, NOW Papers; Betty Geyer to Joel Contreras, 27 Oct. 1978, RG V, box 163, MALDEF Papers.
202. Ann Ladky to Lynn Darcy, 12 Sept. 1974, box 20, NOW Papers. See also A Decade of Feminism: Chicago NOW Highlights of the 1970s (Chicago: National Organization for Women, Chicago Chapter, n.d.). On construction, see, for example, Jane Fleming to William Taylor, 29 Jan. 1980, box 30, CNPR Papers; Clinton Cox, "Fight Back Goes After Construction Jobs," New York Sunday News Magazine, 25 Sept. 1977, reprint in box 8, James Haughton Papers, Schomburg Library; Cleveland Women Working, Cleveland's Banking Industry: Affirmative Action or Inaction? (Cleveland: Cleveland Women Working, 1978); "The General Mills Story," [1973], box 15, NOW Papers; Betty Geyer to Joel Contreras, 27 Oct. 1978, RG V, box 163, MALDEF Papers.
203. Ann Ladky to Lynn Darcy, 12 Sept. 1974, box 20, NOW Papers. See also A Decade of Feminism: Chicago NOW Highlights of the 1970s (Chicago: National Organization for Women, Chicago Chapter, n.d.). On construction, see, for example, Jane Fleming to William Taylor, 29 Jan. 1980, box 30, CNPR Papers; Clinton Cox, "Fight Back Goes After Construction Jobs," New York Sunday News Magazine, 25 Sept. 1977, reprint in box 8, James Haughton Papers, Schomburg Library; Cleveland Women Working, Cleveland's Banking Industry: Affirmative Action or Inaction? (Cleveland: Cleveland Women Working, 1978); "The General Mills Story," [1973], box 15, NOW Papers; Betty Geyer to Joel Contreras, 27 Oct. 1978, RG V, box 163, MALDEF Papers.
204. Ann Ladky to Lynn Darcy, 12 Sept. 1974, box 20, NOW Papers. See also A Decade of Feminism: Chicago NOW Highlights of the 1970s (Chicago: National Organization for Women, Chicago Chapter, n.d.). On construction, see, for example, Jane Fleming to William Taylor, 29 Jan. 1980, box 30, CNPR Papers; Clinton Cox, "Fight Back Goes After Construction Jobs," New York Sunday News Magazine, 25 Sept. 1977, reprint in box 8, James Haughton Papers, Schomburg Library; Cleveland Women Working, Cleveland's Banking Industry: Affirmative Action or Inaction? (Cleveland: Cleveland Women Working, 1978); "The General Mills Story," [1973], box 15, NOW Papers; Betty Geyer to Joel Contreras, 27 Oct. 1978, RG V, box 163, MALDEF Papers.
205. Ann Ladky to Lynn Darcy, 12 Sept. 1974, box 20, NOW Papers. See also A Decade of Feminism: Chicago NOW Highlights of the 1970s (Chicago: National Organization for Women, Chicago Chapter, n.d.). On construction, see, for example, Jane Fleming to William Taylor, 29 Jan. 1980, box 30, CNPR Papers; Clinton Cox, "Fight Back Goes After Construction Jobs," New York Sunday News Magazine, 25 Sept. 1977, reprint in box 8, James Haughton Papers, Schomburg Library; Cleveland Women Working, Cleveland's Banking Industry: Affirmative Action or Inaction? (Cleveland: Cleveland Women Working, 1978); "The General Mills Story," [1973], box 15, NOW Papers; Betty Geyer to Joel Contreras, 27 Oct. 1978, RG V, box 163, MALDEF Papers.
206. Swerdlow, 381. See also Freeman, 726-31; Schroedel, 10, 60-61, 126, 170. For a groundbreaking analysis of sexual harassment "as a mechanism of social control," see Mary Bulzarik, "Sexual Harassment at the Workplace: Historical Notes," in Workers' Struggles, Past and Present, 117-35.
207. Swerdlow, 381. See also Freeman, 726-31; Schroedel, 10, 60-61, 126, 170. For a groundbreaking analysis of sexual harassment "as a mechanism of social control," see Mary Bulzarik, "Sexual Harassment at the Workplace: Historical Notes," in Workers' Struggles, Past and Present, 117-35.
208. Swerdlow, 381. See also Freeman, 726-31; Schroedel, 10, 60-61, 126, 170. For a groundbreaking analysis of sexual harassment "as a mechanism of social control," see Mary Bulzarik, "Sexual Harassment at the Workplace: Historical Notes," in Workers' Struggles, Past and Present, 117-35.
209. For salutary correctives to the idea of monolithic male opposition and portrayals instead of a more complex (and politically promising) spectrum of male views on women's entry into nontraditional jobs, see Brigid O'Farrell and Sharon L. Harlan, "Craft-workers and Clerks: The Effect of Male Co-Worker Hostility on Women's Satisfaction with Non-Traditional Jobs," Social Problems 29 (February 1982): 252-65; also Deaux and Ullman, 145.
210. For salutary correctives to the idea of monolithic male opposition and portrayals instead of a more complex (and politically promising) spectrum of male views on women's entry into nontraditional jobs, see Brigid O'Farrell and Sharon L. Harlan, "Craft-workers and Clerks: The Effect of Male Co-Worker Hostility on Women's Satisfaction with Non-Traditional Jobs," Social Problems 29 (February 1982): 252-65; also Deaux and Ullman, 145.
211. Chicago Women in Trades, Building Equal Opportunity: Six Affirmative Action Programs for Women Construction Workers (Chicago: CWIT, 1995), 5; Heidi Hartmann, "The Recent Past and Near Future for Women Workers: Addressing Remaining Barriers" (speech delivered 20 May 1995 at the Women's Bureau, U.S. Department of Labor, Washington, D.C., distributed by Institute for Women's Policy Research), 3, 8, 10; "Program and Policy Agenda," WOW Papers, 4.
212. Chicago Women in Trades, Building Equal Opportunity: Six Affirmative Action Programs for Women Construction Workers (Chicago: CWIT, 1995), 5; Heidi Hartmann, "The Recent Past and Near Future for Women Workers: Addressing Remaining Barriers" (speech delivered 20 May 1995 at the Women's Bureau, U.S. Department of Labor, Washington, D.C., distributed by Institute for Women's Policy Research), 3, 8, 10; "Program and Policy Agenda," WOW Papers, 4.
213. Chicago Women in Trades, Building Equal Opportunity: Six Affirmative Action Programs for Women Construction Workers (Chicago: CWIT, 1995), 5; Heidi Hartmann, "The Recent Past and Near Future for Women Workers: Addressing Remaining Barriers" (speech delivered 20 May 1995 at the Women's Bureau, U.S. Department of Labor, Washington, D.C., distributed by Institute for Women's Policy Research), 3, 8, 10; "Program and Policy Agenda," WOW Papers, 4.
214. Data from Hartmann, "Recent Past and Near Future," 3, 8, and 10; IWPR, "Affirmative Action in Employment," 3-4. On the value of affirmative action, see Bergmann, 146-72.
215. Data from Hartmann, "Recent Past and Near Future," 3, 8, and 10; IWPR, "Affirmative Action in Employment," 3-4. On the value of affirmative action, see Bergmann, 146-72.
216. Data from Hartmann, "Recent Past and Near Future," 3, 8, and 10; IWPR, "Affirmative Action in Employment," 3-4. On the value of affirmative action, see Bergmann, 146-72.
217. For assessments of affirmative action's contribution to the changes, see "Program and Policy Agenda," WOW Papers, 5; IWPR, "Affirmative Action." For the demise of the family-wage-based sex-gender system, see Stephanie Coontz, The Way We Never Were: American Families and the Nostalgia Trap (New York: Basic Books, 1992); Judith Stacey, Brave New Families: Stories of Domestic Upheaval in Late-Twentieth-Century America (New York: Basic Books, 1990).
218. For assessments of affirmative action's contribution to the changes, see "Program and Policy Agenda," WOW Papers, 5; IWPR, "Affirmative Action." For the demise of the family-wage-based sex-gender system, see Stephanie Coontz, The Way We Never Were: American Families and the Nostalgia Trap (New York: Basic Books, 1992); Judith Stacey, Brave New Families: Stories of Domestic Upheaval in Late-Twentieth-Century America (New York: Basic Books, 1990).
219. For assessments of affirmative action's contribution to the changes, see "Program and Policy Agenda," WOW Papers, 5; IWPR, "Affirmative Action." For the demise of the family-wage-based sex-gender system, see Stephanie Coontz, The Way We Never Were: American Families and the Nostalgia Trap (New York: Basic Books, 1992); Judith Stacey, Brave New Families: Stories of Domestic Upheaval in Late-Twentieth-Century America (New York: Basic Books, 1990).
220. For assessments of affirmative action's contribution to the changes, see "Program and Policy Agenda," WOW Papers, 5; IWPR, "Affirmative Action." For the demise of the family-wage-based sex-gender system, see Stephanie Coontz, The Way We Never Were: American Families and the Nostalgia Trap (New York: Basic Books, 1992); Judith Stacey, Brave New Families: Stories of Domestic Upheaval in Late-Twentieth-Century America (New York: Basic Books, 1990).
221. On support for affirmative action, see, for example, the U.S. National Women's Agenda," [1975], box 10, AFSCME Program Development Department Records.
222. For reports that white women oppose affirmative action by nearly as large a margin as white men, particularly when the question is worded as "preferences," see Charles Krauthammer, "Calling for an End to the Affirmative Action 'Experiment,'" Chicago Tribune, 14 Apr. 1995, I, 1. Polls taken in the wake of the anti-affirmative action California Proposition 209 in 1996 confirmed the pattern.
223. Heidi Hartmann et al., "Bringing Together Feminist Theory and Practice: A Collective Interview," Signs 21 (summer 1996): 946.
224. On the poll data and its implications for feminism, see Martha Burk and Heidi Hartmann, "Beyond the Gender Gap," 262, The Nation, 10 June 1996, 18-21. For critical discussion of the politics of difference, see Hartmann et al., 935; also Roberta Spalter-Roth and Ronnee Schreiber, "Outsider Issues and Insider Tactics: Strategic Tensions in the Women's Policy Network during the 1980s," in Feminist Organizations: Harvest of the New Women's Movement, ed. Myra Marx Ferrée and Patricia Yancey Martin (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1995), 124; Linda Gordon, "On Difference," Genders, no. 10 (spring 1991): 91-111.
225. On the poll data and its implications for feminism, see Martha Burk and Heidi Hartmann, "Beyond the Gender Gap," 262, The Nation, 10 June 1996, 18-21. For critical discussion of the politics of difference, see Hartmann et al., 935; also Roberta Spalter-Roth and Ronnee Schreiber, "Outsider Issues and Insider Tactics: Strategic Tensions in the Women's Policy Network during the 1980s," in Feminist Organizations: Harvest of the New Women's Movement, ed. Myra Marx Ferrée and Patricia Yancey Martin (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1995), 124; Linda Gordon, "On Difference," Genders, no. 10 (spring 1991): 91-111.
226. On the poll data and its implications for feminism, see Martha Burk and Heidi Hartmann, "Beyond the Gender Gap," 262, The Nation, 10 June 1996, 18-21. For critical discussion of the politics of difference, see Hartmann et al., 935; also Roberta Spalter-Roth and Ronnee Schreiber, "Outsider Issues and Insider Tactics: Strategic Tensions in the Women's Policy Network during the 1980s," in Feminist Organizations: Harvest of the New Women's Movement, ed. Myra Marx Ferrée and Patricia Yancey Martin (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1995), 124; Linda Gordon, "On Difference," Genders, no. 10 (spring 1991): 91-111.
227. On the poll data and its implications for feminism, see Martha Burk and Heidi Hartmann, "Beyond the Gender Gap," 262, The Nation, 10 June 1996, 18-21. For critical discussion of the politics of difference, see Hartmann et al., 935; also Roberta Spalter-Roth and Ronnee Schreiber, "Outsider Issues and Insider Tactics: Strategic Tensions in the Women's Policy Network during the 1980s," in Feminist Organizations: Harvest of the New Women's Movement, ed. Myra Marx Ferrée and Patricia Yancey Martin (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1995), 124; Linda Gordon, "On Difference," Genders, no. 10 (spring 1991): 91-111.