Empire, environment and religion: God and the natural world in nineteenth-century New Zealand

Environment and History

Volumn 13, Issue 4, 2007, Pages 413-446

  Beattie, James ^a   Stenhouse, John ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WAIKATO   (New Zealand)

^b UNIVERSITY OF OTAGO   (New Zealand)

Author keywords

Christianity; Conservation; Empire; Environment; Improvement; Theologies of nature

Indexed keywords

CHRISTIANITY; CONSERVATION; ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE; ENVIRONMENTALISM; NINETEENTH CENTURY; POLITICS; RELIGION;

AUSTRALASIA; NEW ZEALAND;

EID: 37249014965     PISSN: 09673407     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3197/096734007X243159     Document Type: Article

References (191)

1. J.S. Polack, New Zealand: Being a Narrative of Travels and Adventures during a residence in that country between the years 1831 and 1837, Volume 1 (London: Richard Bentley, 1838), 101-3.
2. Danny Keenan, 'Bound to the Land: Maori Retention and Assertion of Land and Identity', in Environmental Histories of New Zealand, eds. Eric Pawson and Tom Brooking (Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 2002), 246-60.
3. John Stenhouse, 'Church, State and the New Zealand Wars, 1860-1872', Journal of Law and Religion 13,2 (1998-9): 483-507.
4. Lynn White, Junior, 'The Historical Roots of Our Ecologic Crisis', Science, 155 (1967): 1203-7, here 1206, 1207.
5. White portrayed St Francis of Assisi, a heretic influenced by Asian religious ideas, as promoting a dissident, eco-friendly spirituality which, unfortunately, had little influence. White's article provoked a flurry of debate and research. Major discussions include Western Man and Environmental Ethics: Attitudes towards Nature and Technology, ed. Ian Barbour (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1972);
6. David Spring and Eileen Spring, Ecology and Religion in History (New York: Harper and Row, 1974);
7. Robin Attfield, The Ethics of Environmental Concern (New York: Columbia University Press, 1983);
8. Theology and Technology: Essays in Christian Analysis and Exegesis, eds. Carl Mitcham and Jim Grote (New York: University Press of America, 1984);
9. Jeremy Cohen, "Be Fertile and Increase, Fill the Earth and Master It": The Ancient and Medieval Career of a Biblical Text (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1989), 15-18;
10. Elspeth Whitney, 'Lynn White, Ecotheology and History', Environmental Ethics 15 (1993): 151-69;
11. Peter Harrison, 'Subduing the Earth: Genesis 1, Early Modern Science, and the Exploitation of Nature', The Journal of Religion, 79,1 (1999): 86-109, doi: 10.1086/490346.
12. Lynn White Jr., 'Christians and Nature', Pacific Theological Review 7 (1975): 6-11.
13. Keith Thomas, Man and the Natural World: Changing Attitudes in England, 1500-1800 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, reprint, 1996), 23.
14. John Passmore, Man's Responsibility for Nature: Ecological Problems and Western Traditions (London: Duckworth, 1974).
15. According to Worster, only a small minority dissented - see Nature's Economy: A History of Ecological Ideas, (2nd edition, Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 28-9.
16. For similar views from North American scholars see William Leiss, The Domination of Nature (New York: George Braziller, 1972);
17. Frederick Turner, Beyond Geography: The Western Spirit Against the Wilderness (New York: Viking Press, 1980);
18. and Peter Marshall, Nature's Web: Rethinking Our Place on Earth (New York: Paragon House, 1994).
19. Stephen Fox, The American Conservation Movement: John Muir and His Legacy (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1985);
20. Roderick Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind, (3rd edn, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982).
21. Clive Ponting, A Green History of the World: The Environment and the Collapse of Great Civilizations (New York: Penguin Books, 1993), especially 141-60.
22. Don Garden, Australia, New Zealand, and the Pacific: An Environmental History (Santa Barbara: ABC-Clio, 2005), 67.
23. John MacKenzie, Empires of Nature and the Nature of Empires (East Linton: Tuckwell Press, 1997), 1-30.
24. Robin Attfield, 'Christian Attitudes to Nature', Journal of the History of Ideas 44 (1983): 369-86, doi: 10.2307/2709172;
25. idem, The Ethics of Environmental Concern.
26. Thomas, Man and the Natural World, 23-5.
27. Peter Harrison, 'Subduing the Earth', 90, 103, 108.
28. Richard H. Drayton, Nature's Government: Science, Imperial Britain, and the 'Improvement' of the World, (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000), xvii.
29. C.A. Bayly, The Birth of the Modern World, 1780-1914: Global Connections and Comparisons (Oxford and Malden, Mass.: Blackwell, 2004), 330.
30. Richard Grove, Green Imperialism: Colonial Expansion, Tropical Island Edens and the Origins of Environmentalism, 1600-1860 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, reprint, 1997);
31. Drayton, Nature's Government;
32. Sujit Sivasundaram, Nature and the Godly Empire: Science and Evangelical Mission in the Pacific, 1795-1850 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005);
33. John M. MacKenzie, 'Missionaries, Science and the Environment in Nineteenth-Century Africa', in Andrew Porter, ed., The Imperial Horizons of Protestant Missions, 1880-1914 (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2003), 106-30;
34. James Beattie, 'Drought, Rainmaking and Environmental Perception: Science, Nature and Religion in early Twentieth Century New Zealand', Historical Social Research 29,3 (2004): 82-103.
35. Critics of the White thesis such as Thomas and Harrison did not venture beyond 1800. On the pre-1800 period, see Thomas, Man and the Natural World;
36. Attfield, 'Christian Attitudes to Nature'. After 1800, see William Cronon, 'The Trouble with Wilderness; or, Getting Back to the Wrong Nature', in Uncommon Ground: Toward Reinventing Nature, ed. William Cronon (New York: W.W. Norton and Co, 1995), 69-90.
37. For two exceptions, see Mark Stoll, Protestantism, Capitalism, and Nature in America (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1997);
38. Leigh Eric Schmidt, 'From Arbor Day to the Environmental Sabbath: Nature, Liturgy, and American Protestantism', Harvard Theological Review 84,3 (1991): 303-4.
39. In The Wealth of Nature: Environmental History and the Ecological Imagination (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), Donald Worster took a slightly more nuanced position than in 1977, locating the origins of modern conservationism/environmentatism in 'left-wing Protestantism' as exemplified by John Muir. Unfortunately his discussion of religion (pp. 187-9) is confused and self-contradictory.
40. Pawson and Brooking, Environmental Histories of New Zealand.
41. William Cronon, 'Foreword, in Herbert Guthrie-Smith, Tutira: The Story of a New Zealand Sheep Station (Auckland: Godwit, fifth edition, 1999), xii.
42. Keith Sinclair, A History of New Zealand (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1969 [1959]), 105, 287-8.
43. H.R. Jackson, Churches and People in Australia and New Zealand, 1860-1930 (Wellington: Allen & Unwin/Port Nicholson Press, 1987), 43.
44. For similar views, see Miles Fairburn, The Ideal Society and Its Enemies: The Foundations of Modern New Zealand Society, 1850-1900 (Auckland: Auckland University Press, 1989), 177-8, 184;
45. J.O.C. Phillips, A Man's Country: The Image of the Pakeha Male - A History (Auckland: Penguin, 1996), 63, 68.
46. Lloyd Geering, 'New Zealand Enters the Secular Age', in Religion in New Zealand, eds. Christopher Nichol and James Witch (Wellington: Victoria University Department of Religious Studies, 1980), 238-63, here 261;
47. for similar views see idem, Faith's New Age (London: Collins, 1980)
48. and Tomorrow's God (Wellington: Bridget Williams Books, 1994).
49. A welcome exception, which unfortunately does not go beyond 1850, is Paul Shepard, English Reaction to the New Zealand Landscape before 1850 (Wellington: Department of Geography, Victoria University of Wellington, 1969).
50. Eric Pawson perceptively notes that 'most Pakeha settlers were both Christian in environmental outlook... as well as conscious subscribers to the mores of an emergent capitalist outlook' but does not develop this insight - see 'Confronting Nature', in John Cookson and Graeme Dunstall, Christchurch: Towards a City Biography 1850-2000, (Christchurch: University of Canterbury Press, 2000), 60-84, here 63.
51. Alan Grey, Aotearoa and New Zealand: A Historical Geography (Christchurch: Canterbury University Press, 1994), 12-22, 233-4, here 16, 234, 23.
52. Geoff Park, Nga Uruora: The Groves of Life: Ecology and History in a New Zealand Landscape (Wellington: Victoria University Press, 1995), 133-9;
53. Geoff Park, Theatre Country: Essays on Landscape and Whenua (Wellington: Victoria University Press, 2006), 49-50;
54. for similar views see Evelyn Stokes, 'Contesting Resources: Maori, Pakeha, and a Tenurial Revolution', in Environmental Histories of New Zealand, 35-5 1, here 35.
55. Simon Schama, Landscape and Memory (London: Fontana Press, an imprint of Harper Collins, 1996), 13.
56. See, for example, Jim McAloon, 'Resource Frontiers, Environment and Settler Capitalism 1769-1860', in Environmental Histories of New Zealand, 52-68, here 53, for the kind of brief, passing reference that could also be found in several other chapters.
57. Michael King, The Penguin History of New Zealand (Auckland: Penguin Books, 2004), 515.
58. The Letters and Journals of Samuel Marsden, ed. J.R. Elder (Dunedin: Coulls, Somerville, and Wilkie, 1932), 100.
59. Sanjoy Mukherjee, William Carey's Contribution to Science (Calcutta: Minerva Associates, 1999).
60. Letters and Journals of Samuel Marsden, 337, 383.
61. As Sujit Sivasundaram shows, many missionaries outside New Zealand followed a similar policy of Christianising non-Europeans by spreading European agricultural practices. See his 'Natural History Spiritualized: Civilizing Islanders, Cultivating Breadfruit, and Collecting Souls', History of Science, 39 (2001): 417-43.
62. J. Flatt (Tauranga) to Wm. Jowett (London), 3 January 1837, Australian and New Zealand Missions 1808-1884. Microfilm 79-336, University of Auckland, N.Z. Glass Case 266.3C56g quoted in John Adam, 'The Elms Garden, Tauranga, Conservation Plan', October 1999, 2.
63. John Flatt to Wm. Jowett, 24 Sept. 1836, Matamata, 3, Church Missionary Society. Microfilm 79-336.
64. For a full discussion of Polack's views, from which this quotation comes, see Joel Polack, New Zealand, (Christchurch: Capper Press, 1974), vol. 1, 172-82.
65. J.F.H. Wohlers, Memories of the Life of J F H Wohlers: Missionary at Ruapuke, New Zealand: An autobiography, translated from the German by John Houghton (Dunedin: Otago Daily Times and Witness Newspapers, 1895), 68, 139.
66. On the 'work ethic' in nineteenth-century New Zealand, see Margaret McClure, 'Body and Soul: Heroic Visions of Work in the Late Nineteenth Century', in Fragments: New Zealand Social and Cultural History, eds. Bronwyn Dalley and Bronwyn Labrum (Auckland: Auckland University Press, 2000), 97-117.
67. Letters and Journals of Samuel Marsden, 100, 170, 383;
68. Paul Monin, Hauraki Contested, 1769-1875 (Wellington: Bridget Williams Books, 2006).
69. Charles Darwin, The Voyage of the Beagle (New York: Bantam Books, 1958), 367-8.
70. R.P. Hargreaves, 'Waimate - Pioneer New Zealand Farm', Agricultural History 36,1 (1962): 38-45, quotation on 38.
71. Richard Grove, 'Scottish Missionaries, Evangelical Discourses and the Origins of Conservation Thinking in Southern Africa 1820-1900', Journal of Southern African Studies 15,2 (1989): 163-87, doi: 10.1080/03057078908708196.
72. Reverend William Colenso, 'Presidential Address', Transactions and Proceedings of the New Zealand Institute (hereafter TPNZI), 29 (1896): 133.
73. Jim Endersby, '"From Having no Herbarium." Local knowledge versus Metropolitan Expertise: Joseph Hooker's Australasian Correspondences with William Colenso and Ronald Gunn', Pacific Science 51,4 (2005): 343-58.
74. Elizabeth West Stack, Eliza's Journal: A Gentlewoman's experiences in New Zealand in the late 1850s, ed. Virginia M. Perry (Dunedin: Virginia M. Perry, 1994?), 69, 22-3.
75. Kathryn G. Mercer, 'The Missionary Naturalist: A Case Study of New Zealand Scientific Communication to 1870' (Master of Library and Information Science, Victoria University of Wellington, 2000), 35.
76. Richard Taylor to Laura Taylor, 26 March 1847, Mission House (Wanganui) (typescript, Richard Taylor - Letter to Laura, Taylor Family Papers, MS-Papers-6817-01, Alexander Turnbull Library, [henceforth ATL)).
77. See further Fairburn, Ideal Society;
78. James Beattie, 'Lusting After a Lost Arcadia: European Environmental Perception in Otago, 1840-1860' (B.A. hons. diss., University of Otago, 1999).
79. Quoted in Fairburn, Ideal Society, 23.
80. Jane Bannerman, 'Reminiscences of her life to 1855' (typescript, part of J.C. Wilson family papers, MS-0536-2, Dunedin: Hocken Library [hereafter HL]), 48. Spelling corrected.
81. R.M. McDowell, Gamekeepers for the Nation: The Story of New Zealand's Acclimatisation Societies, 1861-1990 (Christchurch: Canterbury University Press, 1994);
82. Ross Alan Galbreath, 'Colonisation, Science, and Conservation: The development of colonial attitudes toward the native life of New Zealand with particular reference to the career of the colonial scientist Walter Lawry Buller (1838-1906)' (Ph.D. diss., University of Waikato, 1989).
83. W.D. McIntyre, ed., The Journal of Henry Sewell, vol. 1, February 1853 to May 1854, (Christchurch: Whitcoulls, 1980), 427.
84. Sir George Grey to Lady Bunbury, 6 September 1876, (Kawarau, Dunedin: HL, MS 0312).
85. Geoffrey Blainey, ed., Travellers Tales of Early Australia and New Zealand: Oceana, the Tempestous Voyage of J.A. Froude, 1884 & 1885 (North Ryde: Methuen Haynes, 1985), 162.
86. James Burgess, 'Shelter Trees in Cape Egmont District', New Zealand Farmer (hereafter NZF), 22,11 (1901): 475.
87. 'Taranaki, far and wide, has laid claim to the title, and been known as, the Garden of New Zealand. If the Cape district is to retain its climate to share in the proud title it must plant shelter on a large scale, and that without delay.' Ibid., 475.
88. Ibid.
89. See, Grove, Green Imperialism;
90. Candace Slater, 'Amazonia as Edenic Narrative', in Uncommon Ground, 115-16.
91. See further, Thomas, Man and the Natural World;
92. Jean Delumeau, History of Paradise: The Garden of Eden in Myth and Tradition, translated by Matthew O'Connell (New York: Continuum, 1995);
93. John Hate, The Civilization of Europe in the Renaissance (London: Harper Collins Publishers, 1993), 512-83.
94. Gilbert White, The Natural History of Selborne (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993).
95. James Watkin, (20 May 1840), 'Journal, May 1 1840-December 30 1844', in G.C. Thomson Papers, Dunedin: HL, typescript, MS 440/4.
96. Thomson, 'Sketch of the Province of Otago. A Lecture (being one of the series delivered at Dunedin)', Hocken Pamphlet 6,2, Dunedin, 1858, HL.
97. John McLay, 'My Young Life in Otago', Part One of Reminiscences in Papers: John McLay, Otago Peninsula (Dunedin: Settlers' Museum, Copy 70 [original in private hands]), 22, 4. Passages punctuated and spelling corrected.
98. John Stenhouse, 'Darwinism in New Zealand, 1859-1900', in R. Numbers and J. Stenhouse, eds., Disseminating Darwinism: The Role of Place, Race, Religion and Gender (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 61-90.
99. Canterbury Standard, 9 Oct. 1862, n.p.
100. The Press, 16 Jan. 1891, 6.
101. New Zealand Baptist 9 (1892): 179.
102. Ross Galbreath, Scholars & Gentlemen Both: G M & Allan Thomson in New Zealand Science & Education (Wellington: Royal Society of New Zealand, 2002).
103. G.M. Thomson, 'Tongues in trees, books in the running brooks, Sermons in stone, and good in everything', read before the Otago Institute on 12 Nov. 1901, Dunedin: HL, MS-0218.
104. See, Malcolm Andrews, Landscapeand Western Art (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999);
105. Schama, Landscape and Memory.
106. Ron Brownson, 'John Kinder's Photographs', John Kinder's New Zealand, ed. Brownson (Godwit and Auckland Art Gallery: Auckland, 2004), 87-8.
107. The image discussed here is in John Kinder's New Zealand, plate 90, 140.
108. Max Oelschlaeger, The Idea of Wilderness: From Prehistory to the Age of Ecology (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1991), 99.
109. Newcastle Morning Herald and Miners' Advocate (hereafter NMH), 31 Oct. 1893, 3.
110. On Sharpe's romanticism, see James Beattie, 'Alfred Sharpe, Australasia and Ruskin', Journal of New Zealand Art History, 29 (December, 2006), 38-56;
111. on his biography, Roger Blackley, The Art of Alfred Sharpe (Auckland: Bateman and Auckland Art Gallery, 1992).
112. NMH, 6 Sept. 1888, 2.
113. For Sharpe's religious views see the poem 'Earth is Fair', NMH, 20 February 1888, 2.
114. Alfred Sharp (sic], 'From Nature to Nature's God', NMH, 12 June 1888, 2.
115. For other works expressing a similar viewpoint note, 'Evening in the Forest', NMH, 12 January 1882, 2;
116. 'Temples not Made with Hands', Observer and Free Lance, 6 March 1886, n.p.;
117. 'A Day with Nature', NMH, 1 February 1888, 2.
118. Quoted in Blackley, Art of Alfred Sharpe, 141.
119. New Zealand Herald (hereafter NZH), 5 October 1880, 6; 12 October 1880, 6.
120. On the Sublime, Hubert Church and colonial literature, note Julian Kuzma, 'Landscape, Literature and Identity: New Zealand late colonial literature as environmental text, 1890-1921' (Ph.D. diss., University of Otago, 2003), 43-113, here 105.
121. James Beattie, 'Romanticism, Art, Health and Conservation in Otago, 1840-1860', Settlers' Newsletter, 81, 1 (March, 2007): 1-4;
122. Shepard, English Reaction to the New Zealand Landscape;
123. Francis Pound, Frames on the Land: Early Landscape Painting in New Zealand (Auckland: Collins, 1983).
124. See further, Kelly Menzies, '"Natural Women": Land, Nature and the New Zealand First-Wave Feminists, 1880-1910', (B.A. Honours diss., University of Otago, 2005), 9-39.
125. Callum G. Brown, The Death of Christian Britain: Understanding Secularisation, 1800-2000 (London; New York: Routledge, 2001);
126. John Stenhouse, 'God's Own Silence: Secular Nationalism, Christianity and the Writing of New Zealand History', New Zealand Journal of History, 38, 1 (2004): 52-63.
127. Jack Goody, The Culture of Flowers (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993).
128. Alison Jane Clarke, 'Feasts and Fasts: Holidays, Religion and Ethnicity in Nineteenth-Century Otago' (Ph.D. diss., University of Otago, 2003), 200-207, here quotation, 205.
129. See Frances Loeffler, 'Pteridomania: a visual history of the fern in New Zealand', (M.A. diss. in Art History, Victoria University of Wellington, 2006);
130. Tim Bonyhady, The Colonial Earth (Carlton, Victoria: Miegunyah Press, 2000).
131. Reverend James Kirkland, 'Sermons and Notes re (1 of 2), c.1881-1900', underlining in original. MS 3/127, DA5/8, Dunedin: Presbyterian Church of Aoetearoa New Zealand Archives (hereafter, PCANZA).
132. Ex. III.2 'The Burning Bush'. Reverend D.S. Mason, Sermons Book, with Index 1906-32, 398/19/28, DC7/1, Dunedin: PCANZA.
133. Reverend Rutherford Waddell, 'The Children's Sermon', in 'Reverend Dr Rutherford Waddell, Children's Talks c. 1906-1916' (Dunedin: PCANZA, 22 July, nd: I394/8, DC1/4). Waddell was minister of a Dunedin city Presbyterian church from 1877 to 1919.
134. Colin McGeorge, 'The Presentation of the Natural World in New Zealand Primary Schools, 1880-1914', History of Education Review, 23,2 (1994): 41-2.
135. The Lucerne of the South: Wakatipu and the Interior. The Giants of Milford Sound', Young Man's Magazine 6,2 (1904): 32.
136. See James Beattie and Paul Star, 'Forest Conservation andthe New Zealand Landscape: Origins and Influences, 1870-1925', in Landscapes and Communities, eds. Tony Ballantyne and Judith Bennett (Dunedin: Otago University Press, 2005), 17-29.
137. Richard Sassaman, 'Early American e Planting: From Apple Seeds to Arbor Day', Whole Earth Review, 66 (Spring 1990): 1-4;
138. Michael Williams, Americans and Their Forests: A Historical Geography (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 382-3;
139. Libby Robin, 'Days of Nature in Australia', Australia's Ever-Changing Forests V: Proceedings of the Fifth National Conference on Australian Forest History, eds. John Dargavel, Denise Gaughwin and Brenda Libbis (Canberra: Centre for Resource and Environmental Studies and The Australian National University, 2002), 324-41.
140. Hocken Pamphlets 172, 3: 6. It was first published in the Otago Daily Times (5, 12 and 19 September 1891).
141. A Government booklet advised that at the start of Arbor Day 'a short and appropriate address or addresses should be given by the Mayor and other prominent colonists, pointing out the great advantages resulting from an intelligent planting of trees'. See Department of Agriculture, Arbor Day, 1894 (Wellington: Department of Agriculture, 1894), 6.
142. Presbyterian Outlook, 1,25 (1894): 289.
143. Otago Witness [hereafter OW], 20 August 1896, 25.
144. In Queenstown: 'The children of the local Catholic schools also adorned the ground surrounding their schools and churches by planting a number of ornamental and timber trees'. OW, 27 August 1896, 25.
145. Schmidt, 'From Arbor Day to the Environmental Sabbath': 303-4.
146. Thomas, Man and the Natural World, 92-191.
147. See, for instance, 'Scrapbook containing articles by William McCaw, 1855-1880', Dunedin: PCANZA, Box NZ487, Jessie Stewart 398/49/7.
148. Veronika Thornburrow, An Introduction to the History of the Royal New Zealand Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (Auckland: Royal New Zealand Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, c. 1993), 23, 64.
149. At the inaugural meeting to discuss founding an SPCA in Otago, for instance, supporters included Rev. Dr. Stuart (Presbyterian), Archdeacon Edwards (Anglican), Rev. R. Waddell (Presbyterian), and Rev. A.R. Fitchett (Methodist turned Anglican) - ODT, 27 June 1882, page 3, columns 2-3.
150. Bishop Nevill, quoted in Otago Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, Fourteenth Annual Report of the Otago Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (Dunedin: ODT and Witness Co., 1896), 13.
151. Menzies, "'Natural Women"', 35-7. Quote from 37.
152. ODT, 23 August 1876, 3;
153. OW, 2 September 1876, 3.
154. David Hancocks, A Different Nature: The Paradoxical World of Zoos and their Uncertain Future (Berkeley; Los Angeles; London: University of California Press, 2001), 19-25, here 21.
155. See further, John Stenhouse, 'Imperialism, Atheism, and Race: Charles Southwell, Old Corruption, and the Maori', Journal of British Studies 44, 4 (2005): 754-74, doi: 10.1086/431940.
156. Otago Journal, 5 (1848): 66.
157. TPNZI, 1 (1868): 10.
158. Sir George Grey articulated similar views in his presidential address to the New Zealand Society, forerunner of the New Zealand Institute: See Address of Sir George Grey, K.C.B., to the members of the New Zealand Society, as their first president, September 26, 1851 (Wellington: Spectator Office, 1851), 6-11.
159. Reverend Thomas Burns to Captain William Cargill, Portobello, 6 February 1847. MS 0076, Dunedin: HL.
160. Fergus Roderick James Sinclair, "'Waste Howling Wilderness": Explorations in the issue of Waste Lands in Provincial Otago' (B.A. Honours diss., 1985, University of Otago), 4-19, here 7.
161. With centuries of Maori resource use, of course, what many Europeans perceived as unused land was in fact highly managed. Note, for instance, Atholl Anderson, 'A fragile plenty: Pre-European Maori and the New Zealand environment', in Environmental Histories of New Zealand, 19-34. Henry Clark and Alex Garvie to Reverend Thomas Burns, George Turnbull and James Black (Church Trustees), 20 October 1848, Church Title Deeds (miscellaneous), 1848-59, reference SYNOD89/84 BV4-1, Dunedin: PCANZA.
162. Grove, Green Imperialism, 168-308.
163. Dictionary of New Zealand Biography (hereafter, DNZB), vol. 1, 547-8;
164. Joe Young, 'Aspects of the Thought of William Thomas Locke Travers' (B.A. Hons. diss., Otago University, 2002).
165. Wellington Independent, 10 August 1869, 3.
166. Graeme Wynn, 'Remapping Tutira: Contours in the Environmental History of New Zealand', Journal of Historical Geography 23,4 (1997): 418-416, 418-420, doi: 10.1006/jhge.1997.0061.
167. W.T.L. Travers, 'On the Changes effected in the Natural Features of a New Country by the Introduction of Civilized Races', Part III, TPNZI, 3, (1870): 327-8.
168. Wellington Independent, 13 Sept. 1870, p. 2.
169. Travers, 'Acclimatisation in Canterbury', New Zealand Country Journal 10,2 (1886): 131-6, quote 136.
170. See further, Paul Star, 'T.H. Potts and the origins of conservation in New Zealand (1850-1890)' (M.A. diss., University of Otago, 1991), 87-103.
171. James Beattie, 'Environmental Anxiety in New Zealand, 1841-1941: Climate Change, Soil Erosion, Sand Drift, Flooding and Forest Conservation', Environment and History 9, 4 (2003): 379-92, doi: 10.3197/ 096734003129342881.
172. Ferdinand von Hochstetter, New Zealand: Its Physical Geography, Geology and Natural History with Special Reference to the Results of Government Expeditions in the Provinces of Auckland and Nelson, translated by Edward Sauter (Stuttgart: J G Cotta, 1867), 142.
173. See also, Gerhard Holzer, 'Ferdinand von Hochstetter, inbesonders als Neuseelandforscher' (Diplomarbeit in Geschichte, University of Vienna, 1984).
174. Charles O'Neill, New Zealand Parliamentary Debates (hereafter, NZPD), 1873: 1545.
175. J.C. Firth, 'On Forest Culture', TPNZI 7 (1874): 181.
176. John McLay, 'My Young Life in Otago', Part One of Reminiscences in Papers: John McLay, Otago Peninsula (Dunedin: Settlers' Museum, Copy 70 [original in private hands]), 22, 4. Passages punctuated and spelling corrected.
177. A.E. Woodhouse, Guthrie-Smith of Tutira (Christchurch: Whitcombe and Tombs, 1959).
178. Cronon, 'Foreword', in Tutira, nxi-xv, quotation xv.
179. Owen Chadwick, The Reformation (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1982), 93.
180. Tutira, xxi.
181. Tutira, 294.
182. Tutira, 258, 329, 202-203, 236, 297, xxi.
183. David N. Livingstone and Mark A. Noll, 'B.B. Warfield (1851-1921): A Biblical Inerrantist as Evolutionist', Isis 91 (2000): 238-304, doi: 10.1086/384722.
184. For references to divine providence, see, xix, 202, 402. Among dozens of Scriptural and theological references, see xviii, xix, xx, xxiii, 45, 52, 65, 66, 97, 98, 126, 137, 143, 149, 151, 158, 164, 179, 202, 203, 225, 238, 257-71, 294, 295-302, 317, 349, 372, 393, 402, 409-11, 420-22.
185. Cited in xxiii.
186. Tutira, 422.
187. Bernard Lightman, "'The Voices of Nature": Popularizing Victorian Science', in Victorian Science in Context, ed. Bernard Lightman (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997), 187-211, quotation 207.
188. Cronon, 'Foreword', xi.
189. E.O. Wilson, The Creation: An Appeal to Save Life on Earth (New York: Norton, 2006);
190. Oelschlaeger, Caring for Creation;
191. Phillip Jenkins, The Next Christendom: The Coming of Global Christianity (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002).