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Volumn 56, Issue 3, 2007, Pages 322-346

A model of real income growth in roman Italy

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EID: 36849079094     PISSN: 00182311     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article
Times cited : (48)

References (116)
  • 1
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    • Progress and Problems in Roman Demography
    • W. Scheidel (ed.) (Leiden), at 72-77
    • nd ed. London 1985), the single most influential work in this field, is emblematic of this attitude; see W. Scheidel, "Progress and Problems in Roman Demography", in W. Scheidel (ed.), Progress and Problems in Roman Demography (Leiden 2001) 1-81, at 72-77.
    • (2001) Progress and Problems in Roman Demography , pp. 1-81
    • Scheidel, W.1
  • 2
    • 85010460420 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • W. Scheidel/I. Morris/R. P. Sailer (eds.) (Cambridge)
    • The new Cambridge Economic History of the Greco-Roman World is the first project to take due account of demographic factors: see esp. W. Scheidel, "Demography", in W. Scheidel/I. Morris/R. P. Sailer (eds.), The Cambridge Economic History of the Greco-Roman World (Cambridge 2007) 38-86.
    • (2007) The Cambridge Economic History of the Greco-Roman World , pp. 38-86
    • Scheidel, W.D.1
  • 3
    • 11144339998 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Demographic and Economic Development in the Ancient Mediterranean World
    • Cf. also W. Scheidel, "Demographic and Economic Development in the Ancient Mediterranean World", Journal of Institutional and Theoretical Economics 160 (2004) 743-757.
    • (2004) Journal of Institutional and Theoretical Economics , vol.160 , pp. 743-757
    • Scheidel, W.1
  • 4
    • 80054315074 scopus 로고
    • rev. ed. Oxford, for a highprofile example
    • See P. A. Brunt, Italian Manpower 225 B.C.-A.D. 14 (rev. ed. Oxford 1987) 131-155 for a highprofile example.
    • (1987) Italian Manpower 225 B.C.-A.D. 14 , pp. 131-155
    • Brunt, P.A.1
  • 5
    • 84902056414 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • M. Jehne/R. Pfeilschifter, R. (eds.), Herrschaft ohne Integration? (Frankfurt)
    • For tentative quantification, see W. Scheidel, "The Demography of Roman State Formation in Italy", in M. Jehne/R. Pfeilschifter, R. (eds.), Herrschaft ohne Integration? (Frankfurt 2006) 207-226.
    • (2006) The Demography of Roman State Formation in Italy , pp. 207-226
    • Scheidel, W.1
  • 6
    • 34147141484 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Human Mobility in Roman Italy, II: The Slave Population
    • and below, section 4. For tentative quantification, see
    • For tentative quantification, see W. Scheidel, "Human Mobility in Roman Italy, II: The Slave Population", JRS 95 (2005) 64-79, and below, section 4.
    • (2005) JRS , vol.95 , pp. 64-79
    • Scheidel, W.1
  • 8
    • 34147101204 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Human Mobility in Roman Italy, I: The Free Population
    • 3-4
    • Polyb. 2.24, an account of dubious value, although it probably índicates the right order of magnitude: see W. Scheidel, "Human Mobility in Roman Italy, I: The Free Population", JRS 94 (2004) 1-26, at 3-4.
    • (2004) JRS , vol.94 , pp. 1-26
    • Scheidel, W.1
  • 9
    • 61449308088 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (Stanford)
    • J. F. Lazenby, The First Punic War (Stanford 1996). The historian Polybius reports the loss of some 650 Roman ships (each of which could in theory carry up to 420 men) in three major disasters between 255 and 249 BC.
    • (1996) The First Punic War
    • Lazenby, J.F.1
  • 10
    • 80054305862 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (as in)
    • Brunt, Manpower (as in n. 3) 13-14.
    • Manpower , Issue.3 , pp. 13-14
    • Brunt1
  • 11
    • 60949313207 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Chapel Hill and London, 107-140, esp, overall rates, probably too low, 137-140
    • N. Rosenstein, Rome at War (Chapel Hill and London 2004) 107-140, esp. 136-137 (overall rates), 137-140 (probably too low).
    • (2004) Rome at War , pp. 136-137
    • Rosenstein, N.1
  • 12
    • 62449279737 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (Ann Arbor)
    • The rates from 28 BC onward are revised from W. Scheidel, Measuring Sex, Age and Death in the Roman Empire (Ann Arbor 1996) 94-97. The percentage rates are derived from Brunt's reconstruction of overall citizen numbers: a larger number of citizens (see below, at notes 26-29) would reduce the precentages in this graph without greatly altering its overall shape.
    • (1996) Measuring Sex, Age and Death in the Roman Empire , pp. 94-97
    • Scheidel, W.1
  • 14
    • 0003652269 scopus 로고
    • [New Haven], seems uniquely extreme: see Scheidel, Commemoration as in n. 16
    • While we must allow for the possibility of city-country differences, the case of fifteenth-century Tuscany, with much earlier marriage in villages than in towns (D. Herlihy/C. Klapisch-Zuber, Tuscans and their Families [New Haven 1985] 203-211), seems uniquely extreme: see Scheidel, "Commemoration" (as in n. 16).
    • (1985) Tuscans and Their Families , pp. 203-211
    • Herlihy, D.1    Klapisch-Zuber, C.2
  • 15
    • 0037577048 scopus 로고
    • (London and New York)
    • There is no evidence for widespread unions between freebom women and freed slaves either. Partly due to domestic slavery, employment opportunities for single women seem to have been scarce: J. K. Evans, War, Women and Children in Ancient Rome (London and New York 1991) 101-165.
    • (1991) War, Women and Children in Ancient Rome , pp. 101-165
    • Evans, J.K.1
  • 16
    • 0004291455 scopus 로고
    • (New York)
    • J. Boswell, The Kindness of Strangers (New York 1988) 53-94 is the most detailed discussion. I will address this problem in W. Scheidel, "Femicide and Sex Ratios in the Ancient Mediterranean World" (in progress).
    • (1988) The Kindness of Strangers , pp. 53-94
    • Boswell, J.1
  • 17
    • 80054305793 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (as in)
    • For tentative quantification, see Scheidel, "Mobility" (as in n. 8) 10-12, based on Brunt, Manpower (as in n. 3).
    • Mobility , Issue.8 , pp. 10-12
    • Scheidel1
  • 18
    • 80054315013 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (as in)
    • Scheidel, Measuring (as in n. 15) 93-97.
    • Measuring , Issue.15 , pp. 93-97
    • Scheidel1
  • 19
    • 33748351148 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Oxford
    • The disease environment of ancient Rome has been reconstructed by R. Sallares, Malaria and Rome (Oxford 2002) 201-234
    • (2002) Malaria and Rome , pp. 201-234
    • Sallares, R.1
  • 20
    • 33947514205 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Germs for Rome
    • C. Edwards/G. Woolf (eds.), Cambridge
    • and W. Scheidel, "Germs for Rome", in C. Edwards/G. Woolf (eds.), Rome the Cosmopolis (Cambridge 2003) 158-176.
    • (2003) Rome the Cosmopolis , pp. 158-176
    • Scheidel, W.1
  • 21
    • 0003899494 scopus 로고
    • (Oxford and New York)
    • Cf. E. A. Wrigley, People, Cities and Wealth (Oxford and New York 1987) 135 for early modern London. A. Scobie, "Slums, Sanitation, and Mortality in the Roman World", Klio 68 (1986) 399-433 discusses deficient hygiene.
    • (1987) People, Cities and Wealth , pp. 135
    • Wrigley, E.A.1
  • 22
    • 84869913056 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • L'Italie
    • J.-P. Bardet/J. Dupâquier (eds.), Paris, at 515, Italy
    • L. del Panta, 'L'Italie', in J.-P. Bardet/J. Dupâquier (eds.), Histoire des populations de l'Europe II (Paris 1998) 513-532, at 515 (Italy).
    • (1998) Histoire des Populations de l'Europe II , pp. 513-532
    • Panta L.del1
  • 23
    • 70350512747 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • J. Bintliff/K. Sbonias (eds, Reconstructing Past Population Trends in Mediterranean Europe (3000 B.C.-A.D. 1800, Oxford)
    • This case has been made in detail in Scheidel, "Mobility" (as in n. 8) 5-9 and restated in "Roman Population Size: The Logic of the Debate", paper delivered at the conference "Peasants, Citizens and Soldiers: The Social, Economic and Demographic Background to the Gracchan Land Reforms", University of Leiden, June 2007, against the 'high count' recently revived by Elio Lo Cascio, e. g. in E. Lo Cascio, "Population of Roman Italy in Town and Country", in J. Bintliff/K. Sbonias (eds.), Reconstructing Past Population Trends in Mediterranean Europe (3000 B.C.-A.D. 1800) (Oxford 1999) 161-171;
    • (1999) Population of Roman Italy in Town and Country , pp. 161-171
    • Lo Cascio, E.1
  • 24
    • 61149598742 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Augustan Census Figures and the Population of Italy
    • G. Kron, "The Augustan Census Figures and the Population of Italy", Athenaeum 93 (2005) 441-495;
    • (2005) Athenaeum , vol.93 , pp. 441-495
    • Kron, G.1
  • 25
    • 70350515827 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Cycles and Stability: Italian Population before the Demographic Transition (225 B.C.-A.D. 1900)
    • 21.3
    • E. Lo Cascio/P. Malanima, "Cycles and Stability: Italian Population before the Demographic Transition (225 B.C.-A.D. 1900)", Rivista di Storia Economica 21.3 (2005) 197-232.
    • (2005) Rivista di Storia Economica , pp. 197-232
    • Lo Cascio, E.1    Malanima, P.2
  • 26
    • 0015774784 scopus 로고
    • Galen and the Antonine Plague
    • For the nature of this epidemic, probably smallpox, see R. J. Littman/M. L. Littman, "Galen and the Antonine Plague", AWJPh 94 (1973) 243-253;
    • (1973) AWJPh , vol.94 , pp. 243-253
    • Littman, R.J.1    Littman, M.L.2
  • 28
    • 80054305782 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (unpubl. dissertation University of Leiden, in progress). I am indebted to Saskia Hin for sharing her thoughts with me
    • S. Hin, "Fertility and Mortality: Demographic Behavior in Roman in Italy" (unpubl. dissertation University of Leiden, in progress). I am indebted to Saskia Hin for sharing her thoughts with me.
    • Fertility and Mortality: Demographic Behavior in Roman in Italy
    • Hin, S.1
  • 29
    • 80054305765 scopus 로고
    • (Baltimore), 228
    • A single aqueduct built in 144-140 BC cost 45 million denars (Frontin. Aqu. 1.7), probably somewhere around 200-400, 000 tons of wheat equivalent, enough to feed 1-2 million people for a year. T. Frank, An Economic Survey of Ancient Rome I (Baltimore 1933) 145, 228 estimates total state spending on construction from 200-90 BC at five to six times that amount.
    • (1933) An Economic Survey of Ancient Rome , vol.1 , pp. 145
    • Frank, T.1
  • 32
    • 77951808383 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Estimating GDP in the Early Roman Empire
    • E. Lo Cascio (ed.) (Bari)
    • P. Temin, "Estimating GDP in the Early Roman Empire", in E. Lo Cascio (ed.), Innovazione tecnica e progresso economico nel mondo romano (Bari 2006) 31-54 (for an imperial GDP of 2.5 billion denars around AD 100, which needs to be reduced to account for the sizeable contribution of Egypt after 30 BC and intervening growth). Disbursement necessitated the large-scale minting of bullion stocks, the reminting of provincial silver coin, and the introduction of gold coins, all of which are well attested for this period: K. W. Harl, Coinage in the Roman Economy, 300 B.C. to A.D. 700 (Baltimore 1996) 52-60, 71-72.
    • (2006) Innovazione Tecnica e Progresso Economico Nel Mondo Romano , pp. 31-54
    • Temin, P.1
  • 34
    • 34447219131 scopus 로고
    • The Mediterranean and the Roman Revolution: Politics, War, and the Economy
    • For a brief discussion, see F. Millar, "The Mediterranean and the Roman Revolution: Politics, War, and the Economy", P&P 102 (1984) 3-24
    • (1984) P&P , vol.102 , pp. 3-24
    • Millar, F.1
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    • 80054258296 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Roman Republic and the Augustan Revolution (Chapel Hill and London)
    • repr. in Id., Rome, the Greek World, and the East, I: The Roman Republic and the Augustan Revolution (Chapel Hill and London 2002) 215-237.
    • (2002) Rome, the Greek World, and the East , vol.1 , pp. 215-237
  • 36
    • 2542460115 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Framing the Debate over Growth in the Ancient Economy
    • W. Scheidel/S. von Reden (eds.), Edinburgh
    • R. Sailer, "Framing the Debate over Growth in the Ancient Economy", in W. Scheidel/S. von Reden (eds.), The Ancient Economy (Edinburgh 2002) 251-269
    • (2002) The Ancient Economy , pp. 251-269
    • Sailer, R.1
  • 37
    • 9144263432 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (Stanford)
    • and again in J. G. Manning/I. Morris (eds.), The Ancient Economy (Stanford 2005) 223-238, provides an incisive discussion of the problems involved in estimating Roman economic growth. For ancient Greece, see below, n. 61.
    • (2005) The Ancient Economy , pp. 223-238
    • Manning, J.G.1    Morris, I.2
  • 39
    • 0003706252 scopus 로고
    • (Oxford) esp. 549 fig. 3
    • A. J. Parker, Ancient Shipwrecks of the Mediterranean and the Roman Provinces (Oxford 1992) esp. 549 fig. 3. Due to uneven exploration coverage, these data are disproportionately concentrated in the western Mediterranean, and therefore work best as an index of changes in the volume of Italycentered commerce, which is precisely what matters here.
    • (1992) Ancient Shipwrecks of the Mediterranean and the Roman Provinces
    • Parker, A.J.1
  • 40
    • 0142049204 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Machines, Power and the Ancient Economy
    • at 25-27
    • For summaries of recent scientific research, see A. Wilson, "Machines, Power and the Ancient Economy", JRS 92 (2002) 1-32, at 25-27;
    • (2002) JRS , vol.92 , pp. 1-32
    • Wilson, A.1
  • 41
    • 60950034639 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Graeco-Roman Economy in the Super-long Run: Lead, Copper, and Shipwrecks
    • F. de Callatay, "The Graeco-Roman Economy in the Super-long Run: Lead, Copper, and Shipwrecks", JRA 18 (2005) 361-372.
    • (2005) JRA , vol.18 , pp. 361-372
    • Callatay F.de1
  • 43
    • 80053324489 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Hoard Structure and Coin Production in Antiquity - An Empirical Investigation
    • AT 159
    • K. Lockyear, "Hoard Structure and Coin Production in Antiquity - An Empirical Investigation", AT 159 (1999) 215-243.
    • (1999) , pp. 215-243
    • Lockyear, K.1
  • 44
    • 34347300164 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A Revisionist View of Roman Money
    • stresses the importance of credit arrangements
    • W. V. Harris, "A Revisionist View of Roman Money", JRS 96 (2006) 1-24 stresses the importance of credit arrangements.
    • (2006) JRS , vol.96 , pp. 1-24
    • Harris, W.V.1
  • 45
    • 80054314933 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (as in) table 19.2
    • On technology, see Harris, "Republic" (as in n. 44) 536 table 19.2.
    • Republic , Issue.44 , pp. 536
    • Harris1
  • 46
    • 5644220487 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Financial Intermediation in the Early Roman Empire
    • P. Temin, "Financial Intermediation in the Early Roman Empire", JEH 64 (2004) 705-733 argues that "financial institutions in the early Roman Empire were better than those of eighteenth-century France, albeit not as developed as those of eighteenth-century England and Holland" (729);
    • (2004) JEH , vol.64 , pp. 705-733
    • Temin, P.1
  • 47
    • 76749134490 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Roman Shares
    • W. N. Goetzmann and K. G. Rouwenhorst (eds.) (Oxford)
    • this finding also encompasses the late Republican period. For Roman shares, see U. Malmendier, "Roman Shares", in W. N. Goetzmann and K. G. Rouwenhorst (eds.), The Origins of Value (Oxford 2005) 31-42.
    • (2005) The Origins of Value , pp. 31-42
    • Malmendier, U.1
  • 48
    • 84869924892 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • La "new Institutional Economics" e l'economia imperiale romana
    • M. Pani (ed.), Bari, at, briefly considers lowered transactions costs
    • E. Lo Cascio, "La "New Institutional Economics" e l'economia imperiale romana", in M. Pani (ed.), Storia romana e storia moderna (Bari 2005) 69-83, at 78-80 briefly considers lowered transactions costs.
    • (2005) Storia Romana e Storia Moderna , pp. 69-83
    • Lo Cascio, E.1
  • 49
    • 85008579323 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A Market Economy in the Early Roman Empire
    • On market transactions in general, see P. Temin, "A Market Economy in the Early Roman Empire", JRS 91 (2001) 169-181.
    • (2001) JRS , vol.91 , pp. 169-181
    • Temin, P.1
  • 50
    • 60949456380 scopus 로고
    • Brussels, is the most comprehensive collection of the elite-related evidence
    • I. Shatzman, Senatorial Wealth and Roman Politics (Brussels 1975) is the most comprehensive collection of the elite-related evidence.
    • (1975) Senatorial Wealth and Roman Politics
    • Shatzman, I.1
  • 51
    • 77953194852 scopus 로고
    • P. Cartledge/F. D. Harvey (eds.), Crux (Exeter)
    • Rudimentary direct measurements are possible only for classical Athens and Roman Egypt, and tentative investigation of change over time is feasible only for the latter: M. M. Markle, "Jury Pay and Assembly Pay at Athens", in P. Cartledge/F. D. Harvey (eds.), Crux (Exeter 1985) 265-297;
    • (1985) Jury Pay and Assembly Pay at Athens , pp. 265-297
    • Markle, M.M.1
  • 52
    • 1842752973 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A Model of Demographic and Economic Change in Roman Egypt after the Antonine Plague
    • W. Scheidel, "A Model of Demographic and Economic Change in Roman Egypt after the Antonine Plague", JRA 15 (2002) 97-114
    • (2002) JRA , vol.15 , pp. 97-114
    • Scheidel, W.1
  • 53
    • 61149567280 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Real Slave Prices and the Relative Cost of Slave Labor in the Greco-Roman World
    • and Id., "Real Slave Prices and the Relative Cost of Slave Labor in the Greco-Roman World", AncSoc 35 (2005) 1-17.
    • (2005) AncSoc , vol.35 , pp. 1-17
    • Scheidel, W.1
  • 54
    • 80054318363 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (as in)
    • The discussions by Frank, Survey (as in n. 30) 384-385
    • Survey , Issue.30 , pp. 384-385
    • Frank1
  • 55
    • 80054305745 scopus 로고
    • Bonn, show that there is simply no usable wage information for the city of Rome in particular
    • and S. Mrozek, Lohnarbeit im klassischen Altertum (Bonn 1989) 85, 111-112 show that there is simply no usable wage information for the city of Rome in particular.
    • (1989) Lohnarbeit im Klassischen Altertum , vol.85 , pp. 111-112
    • Mrozek, S.1
  • 57
    • 80054258271 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Early Roman Empire: Consumption
    • (as in), at 601-602
    • For a new indirect method of estimating free wages, see W. M. Jongman, "The Early Roman Empire: Consumption", in Scheidel, Morris and Sailer, Economic History (as in n. 2) 597-618, at 601-602, who, drawing on the manumission fees recorded in first-century BC Delphi (Greece) of 7 tons of wheat equivalent per adult male slave, argues that at 10 % annual financing and depreciation costs, slave labor must have yielded 700 kg of wheat equivalent per year in excess of subsistence, and that free labor ought to have commanded a comparable premium. The main problems are that we do not know how representative these freed slaves were (as they may have been skilled and thus more valuable), and how their manumission fees related to purchase prices.
    • Scheidel, Morris and Sailer, Economic History , Issue.2 , pp. 597-618
    • Jongman, W.M.1
  • 59
    • 62449137098 scopus 로고
    • (Frankfurt), esp. 159-164
    • Closer consideration of the nature of staple crop production on large slave estates has led to an appreciation of the symbiotic nature of permanent slave labor and seasonal free labor, much of which was probably provided by neighboring peasants: W. Scheidel, Grundpacht und Lohnarbeit in der Landwirtschaft des römischen Italien (Frankfurt 1994) 153-224, esp. 159-164.
    • (1994) Grundpacht und Lohnarbeit in der Landwirtschaft des Römischen Italien , pp. 153-224
    • Scheidel, W.1
  • 61
    • 80054318332 scopus 로고
    • 200 BC-AD 200 (unpubl. dissertation Cambridge University)
    • The scale of large-scale slave-run livestock raising should not be exaggerated either: J. S. Thompson, "Transhumant and Sedentary Sheep-raising in Roman Italy, 200 BC-AD 200" (unpubl. dissertation Cambridge University 1989);
    • (1989) Transhumant and Sedentary Sheep-raising in Roman Italy
    • Thompson, J.S.1
  • 63
    • 80054314902 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • TBA, the Impact of Globalization in the Roman Empire, 200 B.C.-A.D. 100
    • (forthcoming)
    • TBA, "The Impact of Globalization in the Roman Empire, 200 B.C.-A.D. 100', JEH (forthcoming).
    • JEH
  • 64
    • 80054314901 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (as in) (numbers), 71-79 (imports)
    • Scheidel, "Mobility" (as in n. 6) 65-71 (numbers), 71-79 (imports).
    • Mobility , Issue.6 , pp. 65-71
    • Scheidel1
  • 65
    • 84925716113 scopus 로고
    • The Growth of Real Product in the United States before 1840: New Evidence, Controlled Conjecture
    • For this conjecture, cf., e. g., P. A. David, "The Growth of Real Product in the United States before 1840: New Evidence, Controlled Conjecture", JEH 21 (1967) 151-197;
    • (1967) JEH , vol.21 , pp. 151-197
    • David, P.A.1
  • 67
    • 80054258252 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • and see Temin, "GDP" (as in n. 37) for an application to the Roman empire.
    • GDP , Issue.37
    • Temin1
  • 68
    • 0011631201 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Diet in the Roman World: A Regional Inter-site Comparison of the Mammal Bones
    • Jongman, "Consumption" (as in n. 51) 613-614, based on the surveys of A. King, "Diet in the Roman World: A Regional Inter-site Comparison of the Mammal Bones", JRA 12 (1999) 168-202
    • (1999) JRA , vol.12 , pp. 168-202
    • King, A.1
  • 70
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    • Exigences fonctionelles et variété des interpré tations dans 1'architecture des macella du monde remain
    • E. Lo Cascio (ed.), Bari, at
    • C. De Ruyt, "Exigences fonctionelles et variété des interprétations dans 1'architecture des macella du monde remain", in E. Lo Cascio (ed.), Mercati permanenti e mercati periodici nel mondo romano (Bari 2000) 177-186, at 178-179.
    • (2000) Mercati Permanenti e Mercati Periodici Nel Mondo Romano , pp. 177-186
    • De Ruyt, C.1
  • 73
    • 77949755068 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Archaeology, Standards of Living, and Greek Economic History, in Manning and Morris
    • (as in)
    • and Id., "Archaeology, Standards of Living, and Greek Economic History", in Manning and Morris, Economy (as in n. 43) 91-126.
    • Economy , Issue.43 , pp. 91-126
  • 74
    • 61049097690 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Anthropometry, Physical Anthropology, and the Reconstruction of Ancient Health, Nutrition, and Living Standards
    • G. Kron, "Anthropometry, Physical Anthropology, and the Reconstruction of Ancient Health, Nutrition, and Living Standards", Historia 54 (2005) 68-83.
    • (2005) Historia , vol.54 , pp. 68-83
    • Kron, G.1
  • 75
    • 77951200933 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Archaezoological Evidence for the Productivity of Roman Livestock Farming
    • 21.2
    • Incidentally, Roman livestock was also uncommonly big, an indication of increased productivity: G. Kron, "Archaezoological Evidence for the Productivity of Roman Livestock Farming", MBAH 21.2 (2002) 53-73.
    • (2002) MBAH , pp. 53-73
    • Kron, G.1
  • 76
    • 80054305641 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • They Never Had It so Good: The Rise and Decline of Roman Living Standards
    • delivered at Stanford University, January 16, 2007, with reference to G. Klein Goldewijk and W. M. Jongman (in progress)
    • W. M. Jongman, "They Never Had It So Good: The Rise and Decline of Roman Living Standards", Paper delivered at Stanford University, January 16, 2007, with reference to G. Klein Goldewijk and W. M. Jongman, "They Never Had It So Good: Roman Stature and the Biological Standard of Living" (in progress).
    • They Never Had It so Good: Roman Stature and the Biological Standard of Living
    • Jongman, W.M.1
  • 79
    • 80054258205 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (as in), esp. 81-82 (farming for urban market)
    • Morley, Metropolis (as in n. 7) 55-142, esp. 81-82 (farming for urban market).
    • Metropolis , Issue.7 , pp. 55-142
    • Morley1
  • 80
    • 80054314788 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Comparative Economics of Slavery in the Greco-Roman World
    • E. Dal Lago/ C. Katsari (eds.)
    • W. Scheidet, "The Comparative Economics of Slavery in the Greco-Roman World", in E. Dal Lago/ C. Katsari (eds.), Slave Systems, Ancient and Modern (Cambridge in press), drawing on C. Hanes, "Turnover Cost and the Distribution of Slave Labor in Anglo-America", JEH 56 (1996) 307-329.
    • Slave Systems, Ancient and Modern
    • Scheidet, W.1
  • 81
    • 77955839521 scopus 로고
    • Urban Labour in Rome: Mercennarii and tabernarii
    • P. Garnsey (ed.) (Cambridge), at 55-56
    • S. Treggiari, "Urban Labour in Rome: mercennarii and tabernarii", in P. Garnsey (ed.), Non-slave Labour in the Greco-Roman World (Cambridge 1980) 48-64, at 55-56;
    • (1980) Non-slave Labour in the Greco-Roman World , pp. 48-64
    • Treggiari, S.1
  • 82
    • 80054318308 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (as in)
    • Joshel, Work (as in n. 65) 124-128;
    • Work , Issue.65 , pp. 124-128
    • Joshel1
  • 83
    • 34347282779 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Freedmen and Decurions: Epitaphs and Social History in Roman Italy
    • and cf. now more generally H. Mouritsen, "Freedmen and Decurions: Epitaphs and Social History in Roman Italy", JRS 95 (2005) 38-63.
    • (2005) JRS , vol.95 , pp. 38-63
    • Mouritsen, H.1
  • 84
    • 77949766470 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (unpub. dissertation University of Chicago)
    • C. Hawkins, "Work in the City: Roman Artisans and the Urban Economy" (unpub. dissertation University of Chicago 2006) is the first proper study of this topic. For the huge range of attested professions, see Treggiari's paper.
    • (2006) Work in the City: Roman Artisans and the Urban Economy
    • Hawkins, C.1
  • 85
    • 84869972531 scopus 로고
    • Anniversarii vicini: Zur freien Arbeit im römischen Dorf
    • F. Kudlien, "Anniversarii vicini: Zur freien Arbeit im römischen Dorf", Hermes 112 (1984) 66-84.
    • (1984) Hermes , vol.112 , pp. 66-84
    • Kudlien, F.1
  • 86
    • 79959675762 scopus 로고
    • The City of Rome and the plebs urbana in the Late Republic
    • J. A. Crook et al, (eds.), 2nd ed. Cambridge, for the complexity of the late Republican metropolitan populace
    • nd ed. Cambridge 1994) 644-688, for the complexity of the late Republican metropolitan populace.
    • (1994) The Cambridge Ancient History , vol.9 , pp. 644-688
    • Purcell, C.N.1
  • 87
    • 84927061543 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Stratification, Deprivation and Quality of Life
    • M. Atkins/R. Osborne (eds.) (Cambridge), at 48-52, for discussion and guesstimates
    • The property thresholds were set at 25, 000 denars for the first class, 18, 750 for the second, 12, 500 for the third, and 5, 000 for the fourth, with a very low limit for the fifth class. At 5-6 % annual return on capital, even fourth-class citizen would have earned between 250 and 750 denars a year, or two to six times the traditional basic army stipend; and income from crafts and trades may well have generated higher income relative to assets than farming. The overall number of such citizens is unknowable but likely to have ranged in the 100, 000s: see W. Scheidel, "Stratification, Deprivation and Quality of Life", in M. Atkins/R. Osborne (eds.), Poverty in the Roman World (Cambridge 2006) 40-59, at 48-52, for discussion and guesstimates.
    • (2006) Poverty in the Roman World , pp. 40-59
    • Scheidel, W.1
  • 88
    • 64249093664 scopus 로고
    • (Stuttgart)
    • The muddled tradition about the Gracchan land distribution schemes in the late second century BC is probably the most famous case in point: see K. Bringmann, Die Agrarreform des Tiberius Gracchus (Stuttgart 1985) for a trenchant critique.
    • (1985) Die Agrarreform des Tiberius Gracchus
    • Bringmann, K.1
  • 89
    • 85006155598 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Poverty and Demography: The Case of the Gracchan Land Reform
    • L. de Ligt, "Poverty and Demography: The Case of the Gracchan Land Reform", Mnemosyne 57 (2004) 725-757.
    • (2004) Mnemosyne , vol.57 , pp. 725-757
    • De Ligt, L.1
  • 90
    • 80054318243 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (as in) for quantitative data
    • The latter habit is well established: see esp. Duncan-Jones, Economy (as in n. 51) 120-237 for quantitative data.
    • Economy , Issue.51 , pp. 120-237
    • Duncan-Jones1
  • 92
    • 5644277529 scopus 로고
    • Rome, Taxes, Rents, and Trade
    • K. Hopkins, "Rome, Taxes, Rents, and Trade", Kodai 6/7 (1995/6) 41-75
    • (1995) Kodai , Issue.41-75 , pp. 6-7
    • Hopkins, K.1
  • 93
    • 80054305598 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (as in)
    • reprinted in Scheidel/von Reden, Economy (as in n. 43) 190-230.
    • Economy , Issue.43 , pp. 190-230
    • Von S., R.1
  • 95
    • 80054258126 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (as in)
    • As usual, the evidence of field surveys is ambiguous: Dyson, Community (as in n. 52) 113-114.
    • Community , Issue.52 , pp. 113-114
    • Dyson1
  • 96
    • 0022831817 scopus 로고
    • Population Homeostasis and English Demographic History
    • R. I. Rotberg and T. K. Rabb (eds.) (Cambridge)
    • For the inverse relationship of population growth and real wages, cf., e. g., R. D. Lee, "Population Homeostasis and English Demographic History", in R. I. Rotberg and T. K. Rabb (eds.), Population and Economy (Cambridge 1986) 75-100. 1 will explore this this issue more generally in "Population, Productivity, and the Limits of Prosperity: A Neomalthusian Perspective on Roman Economic Growth" (in progress).
    • (1986) Population and Economy , pp. 75-100
    • Lee, R.D.1
  • 97
    • 84869977001 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (ed), Portugal da renascimento à crise dinástica (Lisbon), at 13 and n.10 (census of 1527/32);
    • Population size: J. J. A. Dias, "A populacão", in Id. (ed), Portugal da renascimento à crise dinástica (Lisbon 1998) 11-52, at 13 and n.10 (census of 1527/32);
    • (1998) A Populacão , pp. 11-52
    • Dias, J.J.A.1
  • 101
    • 84869969093 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (as in)
    • Dias, "Populacão" (as in n.79) 23.
    • Populacão , Issue.79 , pp. 23
    • Dias1
  • 104
    • 80054258022 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (as in)
    • For the underpopulation of the Portuguese countryside, see Boxer, Empire (as in n. 79) 53
    • Empire , Issue.79 , pp. 53
    • Boxer1
  • 106
    • 84869969093 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (as in)
    • On male migration, see Dias, "Populacäo" (as in n.79) 23-26.
    • Populacäo , Issue.79 , pp. 23-26
    • Dias1
  • 108
    • 80054318186 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (as in)
    • Wrigley, People (as in n. 23) 152.
    • People , Issue.23 , pp. 152
    • Wrigley1
  • 109
    • 80054314780 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (as in) for the general premises
    • See Scheidel, "Demography" (as in n. 2) for the general premises.
    • Demography , Issue.2
    • Scheidel1
  • 110
    • 80054318143 scopus 로고
    • (as in)
    • I follow Finley, Economy (as in n. 2 [1985]) 182 in adopting R. J. Chorley/P. Haggett's (Socioeconomic Models in Geography [London 1968] 22) poignant definition of a model as "a simplified structuring of reality which represents supposedly significant relationships in a generalized form" which "do not include all associated observations or measurements, but as such (...) are valuable in obscuring incidental detail and in allowing fundamental aspects of reality to appear".
    • (1985) Economy , Issue.2 , pp. 182
    • Finley1
  • 113
    • 61149259587 scopus 로고
    • Hunger at Rome in the Late Republic
    • D. Cherry, "Hunger at Rome in the Late Republic", EMC 12 (1993) 433-450.
    • (1993) EMC , vol.12 , pp. 433-450
    • Cherry, D.1
  • 114
    • 34147181131 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Creating a Metropolis: A Comparative Demographic Perspective
    • Scale: for cross-cultural context, see, W. V. Harris/G. Ruffini (eds.), Leiden, esp 3-18
    • Scale: for cross-cultural context, see W. Scheidel, "Creating a Metropolis: A Comparative Demographic Perspective", in W. V. Harris/G. Ruffini (eds.), Ancient Alexandria between Egypt and Greece (Leiden 2004) 1-31, esp. 3-18.
    • (2004) Ancient Alexandria between Egypt and Greece , pp. 1-31
    • Scheidel, W.1
  • 116
    • 80054305501 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • (as in) for the nexus between chattel slavery and demand for labor
    • See Scheidel, "Economics" (as in n. 66) for the nexus between chattel slavery and demand for labor.
    • Economics , Issue.66
    • Scheidel1


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