Machines, power and the ancient economy

Journal of Roman Studies

Volumn 92, Issue , 2002, Pages 1-32

  Wilson, Andrew ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0142049204     PISSN: 00754358     EISSN: 1753528X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/3184857     Document Type: Review

References (165)

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11. The best general survey, though in need of updating, remains K. D. White's Greek and Roman Technology (1984), which raises doubts about primitivist views
12. See also G. W. Houston, 'The state of the art: current work in the technology of ancient Rome', The Classical Journal 85 (1989), 63-80, which stresses the importance of technology and shows how few works apply it to other questions
13. The view that animist conceptions of nature inhibited technological progress was still being defended in J. P. Oleson, Greek and Roman Mechanical Water-lifting Devices: the History of a Technology (1984), 403
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53. e siècle avant J.C. (1983)
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56. T. Schioler, Roman and Islamic Water-lifting Wheels (1973), 16
57. R. J. Forbes, 'Power', in C. Singer, E. J. Holmyard, A. R. Hall and T. I. Williams (eds), A History of Technology vol. 2 (1956), 589-622
58. R. J. Forbes, Studies in Ancient Technology vol. 2 (2nd edn, 1965)
59. J. Gimpel, The Medieval Machine. The Industrial Revolution of the Middle Ages (2nd edn, 1992)
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62. H.-P. Volpert, 'Die römischer Wassermühle einer villa rustica in München-Perlach', Bayerische Vorgeschichtsblatter 62 (1997), 243-78
63. J.-P. Brun and M. Borréani, 'Deux moulins hydrauliques du Haut Empire romain en Narbonnaise. Villae des Mesclans à La Crau et de Saint-Pierre/Les Laurons aux Arcs', Gallia. Fouilles et monuments archéologiques en France métropolitaine 55 (1998), 279-326
64. N. Holbrook and A. Thomas, 'The Roman and early Anglo-Saxon settlement at Wantage, Oxfordshire. Excavations at Mill Street, 1993-4', Oxoniensia 61 (1996), 109-79
65. Personal observation, 1998
66. D. Castella (ed.), Le moulin hydraulique gallo-romain d'Avenche «en Chaplix» (1994)
67. For latrines with tiled splash-backs, see G. C. M. Jansen, 'Water systems and sanitation in the houses of Herculaneum', Mededelingen van het Nederlands Instituut te Rome 50 (1991), 145-66, at 156-8
68. W. Cszyz, 'Eine baujuwarische Wassermühle im Paartal bei Dasing', Antike Welt 25 (1994), 152-4
69. P. Leveau, 'Les moulins romains de Barbegal, les ponts-aqueducs du Vallon de l'Arc, et l'histoire naturelle de la vallée des Baux (Bilan de six ans de fouilles programmées)', Comptes rendus des séances de l'Académie des inscriptions et belles-lettres (1995), 116-44
70. L. Gounaropoulou and M. B. Hatzopoulos, Epigraphes Kato Makedonias, vol. 1
71. H. W. Pleket, 'Greek epigraphy and comparative ancient history: two case studies', Epigraphica Anatolica 12 (1988), 25-37, at 27-8
72. cf. A. Gauchéron, 'Who was Antipater?', in The International Molinological Society. Eighth International Symposium on Molinology, Aberystwyth, July 3-10 1993. Conference Papers (1993), 25-36
73. However, R. J. A. Wilson, 'Aqueducts and water supply in Greek and Roman Sicily: the present status quaestionis', in G. C. M. Jansen (ed.), Cura Aquarum in Sicilia (2000), 5-36, at 13-14, suggests that the Tremilia aqueduct at Syracuse, which terminates at the edge of a precipice on Epipolae, may have been designed to drive a water-mill; and that its technique of construction may suggest a date under Hiero II (270-215 B.C.). If so, this would represent a very early spread of the technique to Sicily. While this would be tempting in the light of what we know about the intellectual climate of Hiero's Syracuse, and his attempts to make Archimedes apply science to practical ends, both the suggested mill and the date remain hypothetical
74. Chesters (on the basis of a channel which is probably a mill-race) and Poltross Burn (for the nearby fort of Aesica): F. G. Simpson, Watermills and Military Works on Hadrian's Wall: Excavations in Northumberland, 1907-1913 (1976). (The supposed mill at Willowford is in fact simply a bridge abutment; personal observation.) Powered mill-stones indicate a possible water-mill at Vindolanda, which certainly had a stream suitable for driving mills (personal observation)
75. A. I. Wilson, 'Water-power in North Africa and the development of the horizontal water-wheel', Journal of Roman Archaeology 8 (1995), 499-510
76. M. Matteini Chiari (ed.), Saepinum (1982), 172
77. F. Benoit, 'L'usine de meunerie hydraulique de Barbegal (Arles)', Revue archéologique sixième série 15.1 (1940), 19-80
78. P. Leveau, 'The Barbegal water-mill in its environment: archaeology and the economic and social history of antiquity', Journal of Roman Archaeology 9 (1996), 137-53
79. P. S. Bellamy and R. B. Hitchner, 'The villas of the Vallée des Baux and the Barbegal Mill: excavations at la Mérindole villa and cemetery', Journal of Roman Archaeology 9 (1996), 154-76
80. A. I. Wilson, 'Deliveries extra urbem: aqueducts and the countryside', Journal of Roman Archaeology 12 (1999), 314-31, at 325-6
81. R. H. Sellin, 'The large Roman water-mill at Barbegal (France)', History of Technology 8 (1983), 100-1
82. A. T. Hodge, 'A Roman factory', Scientific American (November 1990), 58-64, at 60
83. Anders Jesperson apud N. A. F. Smith, 'The origins of water power: a problem of evidence and expectations', Transactions of the Newcomen Society 55 (1983-4), 67-84, at 82-3, gives the output from an overshot mill on Fyn at 20 kg/hour
84. A. I. Wilson, 'Mulini, acquedotti e assedi sul Gianicolo', Forma Urbis 5.2 (Febbraio 2000), 32-7
85. 'The Water-mills on the Janiculum', Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome 45 (2001), 219-46
86. For earlier excavations of part of the complex cf. M. Bell, 'Mulini ad acqua sul Gianicolo', in S. Quilici Gigli (ed.), Archeologia laziale XI (1992), 65-72
87. 'An imperial flour mill on the Janiculum', in Le ravitaillement en blé de Rome et des centres urbains des débuts de la République jusqu'au Haut Empire ( 1994), 73-89
88. Cassiodorus, Variae 11.39.1-2 (A.D. 533/537)
89. Procopius, Wars 5.19.8-19 (events of A.D. 537)
90. Wikander, op. cit. (n. 7, 1979), 20, 26-7
91. Wilson, op. cit. (n. 71, 2001), 225-7
92. For a possible mill on the Aqua Alsietina on the Janiculum, see A. W. van Buren and G. P. Stevens, 'The Aqua Alsietina on the Janiculum', Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome 6 (1927), 137-46, at 139
93. Wilson, op. cit. (n. 71, 2001), for the detailed arguments
94. See also Wikander, op. cit. (n. 7, 1979)
95. T. Schioler and Ö. Wikander, 'A Roman water-mill in the baths of Caracalla', Opuscula romana 14 (1983), 47-64
96. F. Coarelli, 'La situazione edilizia di Roma sotto Severo Alessandro', in L'Urbs: espace urbain et histoire (Ier siècle av. J.-C.- IIIe siècle ap. J.-C.): actes du colloque international organisé par le Centre national de la recherche scientifique et l'Ecole française de Rome (Rome, 8-12 mai 1985) (1987), 429-56
97. J. P. Oleson, 'A Roman water-mill on the Crocodilion river near Caesarea', Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palästina-Vereins 100 (1984), 137-52
98. with comments in Wilson, op. cit. (n. 64)
99. J. Röder and G. Röder, 'Die antike Turbinenmühle in Chemtou', in F. Rakob (ed.), Simitthus vol. 1 (1993), 95-102
100. Wilson, op. cit. (n. 64)
101. M. Bovis and L. Leschi, Algérie antique (1952), 155. 157
102. Hierapolis: Pleket, op. cit. (n. 6o), 27-8
103. Beroe: Gounaropoulou and Hatzopoulos, op. cit. (n. 59), no. 7. Antioch: Libanius, Or. 4.29
104. Orcistos: A. Chastagnol, 'L'inscription constantinienne d'Orcistus', Mélanges de l'École française de Rome, Antiquité 93 (1981), 381-416, at 393-8 (dating) and 407-9 (mills)
105. Amida: Wilson, op. cit. (n. 54)
106. B. Gille, 'Machines', in C. Singer, E. J. Holmyard, A. R. Hall and T. I. Williams (eds), A History of Technology vol. 2 (1956), 629-58, at 638-45
107. White, op. cit. (n. 4, 1962), 79-84
108. Gimpel, op. cit. (n. 45), 13-16
109. refuted by D. L. Simms, 'Water-driven saws, Ausonius, and the authenticity of the Mosella', Technology and Culture 24 (1983), 635-43
110. 'Water-driven saws in late antiquity', Technology and Culture 26 (1985), 275-6
111. Wikander, op. cit. (n. 7, 1981), 99-100
112. Wikander, op. cit. (n. 7, 1989)
113. Gregory of Nyssa, In Ecclesiasten 3
114. Lewis, op. cit. (n. 15)
115. e siècle', Archéologia 385 (2002), 36-7. I am very grateful to Jacques Seigne for discussing the evidence with me in advance of publication
116. Lewis, op. cit. (n. 15), 84-8, 101-5
117. Vita S. Romani 52 and 57
118. On the terminology of deposits, see A. Woods, 'Mining', in J. S. Wacher (ed.), The Roman World vol. 2 (1987), 611-34, at 612-13
119. For overviews of hydraulic mining, see D. G. Bird, 'The Roman gold-mines of north-west Spain', Bonner Jahrbücher 172 (1972), 36-64
120. Woods, op. cit. (n. 98)
121. P. T. Craddock, Early Metal Mining and Production (1995), 87-92
122. A. I. Wilson, 'Industrial uses of water', in O. Wikander (ed.), Handbook of Ancient Water Technology (2000), 127-49, at 140-2
123. D. G. Bird, 'Aspects of Roman gold mining: Dolaucothi, Asturias and Pliny', in N. Higham (ed.), Archaeology of the Roman Empire: a Tribute to the Life and Works of Professor Barri Jones (2001), 265-75
124. Bird, op. cit. (n. 99, 2001), 271
125. C. Domergue and G. Hérail, 'L'utilisation de la photographie aérienne oblique en archéologie et géomorpholoige minières: les mines d'or romaines du nord-ouest de l'Espagne', in A. Bazzana and A. Humbert (eds), Prospections aériennes: les paysages et leur histoire (1983), 89-103
126. R. F. J. Jones and D. G. Bird, 'Roman gold-mining in North-West Spain, II: workings on the Rio Duerna', JRS 62 (1972), 59-74
127. Bird, op. cit. (n. 99, 1972)
128. Woods, op. cit. (n. 98)
129. C. Domergue, 'A propos de Pline, Naturalis historia, 33, 70-78, et pour illustrer sa description des mines d'or romaines d'Espagne', Archivo español de arqueología 45-47 (1972-74), 499-528
130. C. Domergue, Les mines de la Péninsule Ibérique dans l'antiquité romaine (1990)
131. Bird, op. cit. (n. 99, 1972), 48
132. G. D. B. Jones, I. J. Blakey and E. C. F. MacPherson, 'Dolaucothi: the Roman aqueduct', Bulletin of the Board of Celtic Studies 19 (1960),71-84 and pls III-V
133. Bird, op. cit. (n. 99, 2001)
134. Jones and Bird, op. cit. (n. 102), 71-3
135. Oleson, op. cit. (n. 6), 191, 200, 221, 249-50, 270-2
136. M. J. T. Lewis, 'Railways in the Greek and Roman world', in A. Guy and J. Rees (eds), Early Railways. A Selection of Papers from the First International Early Railways Conference (2001), 8-19, at 15
137. C. A. Ferreira Almeida, 'Aspectos da mineração romana de ouro em Jales e Tresminas (Tras-os-Montes)', in XII Congreso Nacional de Arqueología, Jaen 1971 (1973). 553-62, at 550-60
138. J. Wahl, 'Três Minas. Vorbericht über die archäologischen Untersuchungen im Bereich des römischen Goldbergwerks 1986/1987', Madrider Mitteilungen 29 (1988), 221-44, at 229-30
139. References collected in Lewis, op. cit. (n. 15), 106-10
140. Ferreira Almeida, op. cit. (n. 109), 561-2 and fig. III
141. Wahl, op. cit. (n. 109), 230-2 and Taff. 41, 44a, 45a, 56a (ore-crushing), 239-44 (dating)
142. Other cudes stones are reported from gold mines at Bachicón de Fresnedo (Allande, Asturias), Cecos (Ibias, Asturias), Castropodome, Andiñuela and Corta del Valladar de Pozos (Léon); El Molinillo (Ciudad Reale y Toledo): F.-J. Sänchez-Palencia, 'Los "Morteros" de Fresnedo (Allande) y Cecos (Ibias) y los lavanderos de oro romanos en el noroeste de la Península Ibérica', Zephyrus 37/38 (1984/1985), 340-50
143. Bird, op. cit. (n. 99, 1972), 44-5
144. For other millstones from Dolaucothi, apparently of similar size, see Burnham, op. cit. (n. 110), 334, and pl. XXIXb
145. Vipasca II, ch. 4
146. see C. Domergue, 'La mine antique d'Aljustrel (Portugal) et les tables de bronze de Vipasca', Conimbriga 22 (1983), 5-193
147. S. Lazzarini, Lex Metallis Dicta. Studi sulla seconda tavola di Vipasca (2001) (non vidi)
148. Jones, op. cit. (n. 116), 62
149. Domergue, op. cit. (n. 102, 1990), 330-1 for names attested on lead ingots of the first century from Spanish mines producing lead and silver
150. S. Hong, J.-P. Candelone, C. C. Patterson, and C. F. Boutron, 'Greenland ice evidence of hemispheric lead pollution two millennia ago by Greek and Roman civilizations', Science 265 (1994), 1841-3
151. S. Hong, J.-P. Candelone, C. C. Patterson and C. F. Boutron, 'History of ancient copper smelting pollution during Roman and medieval times recorded in Greenland ice', Science 272 (1996), 246-9
152. K. J. R. Rosman, W. Chisholm, S. Hong, J.-P. Candelone and C. F. Boutron, 'Lead from Carthaginian and Roman Spanish mines isotopically identified in Greenland ice dated from 600 B.C. to 300 A.D.' Environment, Science and Technology 31 (1997), 3413-6
153. Rosman et al., op. cit. (n. 119)
154. Hong et al., op. cit. (n. 119, 1996)
155. R. Syme, 'Pliny the Procurator', Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 73 (1969), 201-36, at 218, supposes that these figures might relate to the reign of Augustus
156. Hopkins, op. cit. (n. 123), 107-8
157. M. Corbier, 'Histoire monétaire, histoire des prix, histoire des mines', in C. Domergue (ed.), Mineria y metalurgia en las antiguas civilizaciones Mediterraneas y Europas vol. 2 (1989), 183-94
158. Howgego, op. cit. (n. 126), 4-8
159. G. D. B. Jones, 'The Roman mines at Riotinto', JRS 70 (1980), 146-65
160. B. Rothenberg, F. Garcia Palomero, H.-G. Bachmann, and J. W. Goethe, 'The Rio Tinto enigma', in C. Domergue (ed.), Mineria y metalurgia en las antiguas civilizaciones Mediterraneas y Europas vol. 1 (1989), 57-70
161. Rosman et al., op. cit. (n. 119), 3415-16
162. Jones, op. cit. (n. 128), 162
163. Historia Augusta: M. Antoninus 22.9-11
164. R. P. Duncan-Jones, Money and Government in the Roman Empire ( 1994), 215-19
165. Crawford, op. cit. (n. 123), 564, 574-5