Psychobiology of posttraumatic stress disorder in pediatric injury patients: A review of the literature

Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews

Volumn 32, Issue 1, 2008, Pages 161-174

  Langeland, Willie ^a,b   Olff, Miranda ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF AMSTERDAM   (Netherlands)

^b VU UNIVERSITY AMSTERDAM   (Netherlands)

Author keywords

Pediatric injury patients; Posttraumatic stress disorder; Prevention; Risk factors; Trauma

Indexed keywords

ANXIETY DISORDER; CHILDHOOD INJURY; COPING BEHAVIOR; DIAGNOSTIC AND STATISTICAL MANUAL OF MENTAL DISORDERS; EMERGENCY CARE; HIGH RISK POPULATION; HUMAN; INJURY SEVERITY; OUTCOME ASSESSMENT; POSTTRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PSYCHOBIOLOGY; REVIEW; STRESS; SYMPTOMATOLOGY; TRAFFIC ACCIDENT;

ACCIDENTS, TRAFFIC; ADAPTATION, PSYCHOLOGICAL; ADOLESCENT; AGE FACTORS; CHILD; CHILD, PRESCHOOL; HUMANS; INFANT; LIFE CHANGE EVENTS; PARENT-CHILD RELATIONS; RECOVERY OF FUNCTION; RISK FACTORS; STRESS DISORDERS, POST-TRAUMATIC; STRESS DISORDERS, TRAUMATIC, ACUTE; WOUNDS AND INJURIES;

EID: 36348972856     PISSN: 01497634     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2007.07.002     Document Type: Review

References (167)

1. Aaron J., Zaglul H., and Emery R.E. Posttraumatic stress in children following acute physical injury. Journal of Pediatric Psychology 24 (1999) 335-343
2. Adler G., and Manassis K. Psychosocial treatment of pediatric posttraumatic stress disorder: the neglected field of single-incident trauma. Depression and Anxiety 22 (2005) 177-189
3. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manula of Mental Disorders. third ed (1980), American Psychiatric Association, Washington, DC
4. American Psychiatric Association, 2001. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fourth ed. American Psychiatric Association, Washington, DC.
5. Balluffi A., Kassam-Adams N., Kazak A., Tucker M., Dominguez T., and Helfaer M. Traumatic stress in parents of children admitted to the pediatric intensive care unit. Pediatric Critical Care Medicine 5 (2004) 547-553
6. Bisson J.I. Single-session early psychological interventions following traumatic events. Clinical Psychology Review 23 (2003) 481-500
7. Bisson J.I., Shepherd J.P., Joy D., Probert R., and Newcombe R.G. Early cognitive-behavioural therapy for post-traumatic stress symptoms after physical injury. Randomised controlled trial. British Journal of Psychiatry 184 (2004) 63-69
8. Blanchard E.B., Hickling E.J., Mitnick N., Taylor A.E., Loos W., and Buckley T.C. The impact of severity of injury and perception of life threat in the development of posttraumatic stress disorder after motor vehicle accidents. Behavior Research and Therapy 33 (1995) 529-534
9. Blanchard E.B., Hickling E.J., Galovski T., and Veazy C. Emergency room vital signs and PTSD in a treatment seeking sample of motor vehicle accident survivors. Journal of Traumatic Stress 15 (2002) 199-204
10. Boehnlein J.K., and Kinzie J.D. Pharmacologic reductions of CNS noradrenergic activity in PTSD: the case for clonidine and prazosin. Journal of Psychiatric Practice 13 (2007) 72-78
11. Brewin C.R., Andrews B., and Valentine J.D. Meta-analysis of risk factors for posttraumatic stress disorder in trauma-exposed adults. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 68 (2000) 748-766
12. Broekman B.F., Olff M., and Boer F. The genetic background of PTSD. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 31 (2007) 348-362
13. Bryant R.A. Posttraumatic stress disorder, flashbacks, and pseudomemories in closed head injuries. Journal of Traumatic Stress 9 (1996) 621-629
14. Bryant R.A., Harvey A.G., Guthrie R.M., and Moulds M.I. A prospective study of psychophysiological arousal, acute stress disorder, and posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 109 (2000) 341-344
15. Bryant B., Mayou R., Wiggs L., Ehlers A., and Stores G. Psychological consequences of road traffic accidents for children and their mothers. Psychological Medicine 34 (2004) 335-346
16. Bryant R.A., Salmon K., Sinclair E., and Davidson P. Heart rate as a predictor of posttraumatic stress disorder in children. General Hospital Psychiatry 29 (2007) 66-68
17. Buckley B., Nugent N., Sledjeski E., Raimonde A.J., Spoonster E., Bogart L.M., et al. Evaluation of initial posttrauma cardiovascular levels in association with acute PTSD symptoms following a serious motor vehicle accident. Journal of Traumatic Stress 17 (2004) 317-324
18. Caffo E., and Belaise C. Psychological aspects of traumatic injury in children and adolescents. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America 12 (2003) 493-535
19. Cahill L., Prins B., Weber M., and McGaugh J.L. Beta-adrenergic activation and memory for emotional events. Nature 371 (1994) 702-704
20. Carr A. Interventions for post-traumatic stress disorder in children and adolescents. Pediatric Rehabilitation 7 (2004) 231-244
21. Carrion V.G., Weems C.F., Ray R.D., and Reiss A.L. Toward an empirical definition of pediatric PTSD: the phenomenology of PTSD symptoms in youth. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 41 (2002) 166-173
22. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 2004. Web-based injury statistic query and reporting system (WISQARS). National Center for Injury Prevention and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Available at: 〈http://www.cdc.gov/ncipi/wisqars〉. Accessed June 26, 2007.
23. Charney D.S., Deutch A.Y., Krystal J.H., Soutwick S.M., and Davis M. Psychobiological mechanisms of posttraumatic stress disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry 50 (1993) 294-305
24. Chrousos G.P., and Gold P.W. The concepts of stress and stress system disorders: overview of physical and behavioral homeostasis. Journal of the American Medical Association 267 (1992) 1244-1252
25. Cohen J.A. Treating acute posttraumatic stress reactions in children and adolescents. Biological Psychiatry 53 (2003) 827-833
26. Davis M., and Emory E. Sex differences in neonatal stress reactivity. Child Development 66 (1995) 14-27
27. Daviss W.B., Mooney D., Racusin R., Ford J.D., Fleischer A., and McHugo G.J. Predicting posttraumatic stress after hospitalization for pediatric injury. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 39 (2000) 576-583
28. Deacon B.J., Valentiner D.P., Gutierrez P.M., and Blacker D. The anxiety sensitivity index for children: factor structure and relation to panic symptoms in an adolescent sample. Behavior Research and Therapy 40 (2002) 839-852
29. De Bellis M.D., and Putnam F.W. The psychobiology of childhood maltreatment. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America 3 (1994) 663-678
30. De Bellis M.D., Keshavan M.S., Clark D.B., Casey B.J., Giedd J.N., Boring A.M., et al. A.E. Bennett Research award: developmental traumatology: part II. Brain development. Biological Psychiatry 45 (1999) 1271-1284
31. Dehon C., and Scheeringa M.S. Screening for preschool posttraumatic stress disorder with the child behavior checklist. Journal of Pediatric Psychology 31 (2006) 431-435
32. Delahanty D.L., and Nugent N.R. Predicting PTSD prospectively based on prior trauma history and immediate biological responses. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1071 (2006) 27-40
33. Delahanty D.L., Nugent N.R., Christopher N.C., and Walsh M. Initial urinary epinephrine and cortisol levels predict acute PTSD symptoms in child trauma victims. Psychoneuroendocrinology 30 (2005) 121-128
34. DeVries A.P.J., Kassam-Adams N., Cnaan A., Sherman Slate E., Gallagher P., and Winston F.K. Looking beyond the physical injury: post-traumatic stress disorder in children and parents after pediatric traffic injury. Pediatrics 104 (1999) 1293-1299
35. Di Gallo A., Barton J., and Parry-Jones W.L.I. Road traffic accidents: early psychological consequences in children and adolescents. British Journal of Psychiatry 170 (1997) 358-362
36. Drake J.E., Stoddard Jr. F.J., Murphy J.M., Ronfeldt H., Snidman N., Kagan J., et al. Trauma severity influences acute stress in young burned children. Journal of Burn Care Research 27 (2006) 174-182
37. Ehlers A., Mayou R.A., and Bryant B. Psychological predictors of chronic PTSD after motor vehicle accidents. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 107 (1998) 508-519
38. Ehlers A., Mayou R.A., and Bryant B. Cognitive predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder in children: results of a prospective longitudinal study. Behavior Research and Therapy 41 (2003) 1-10
39. Ehlers A., Clark D.M., Hackmann A., McManus F., Fennell M., Herbert C., et al. A randomized controlled trial of cognitive therapy, a self-help booklet, and repeated assessments as early interventions for posttraumatic stress disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry 60 (2003) 1024-1032
40. Ellis A., Stores G., and Mayou R. Psychological consequences of road traffic accidents in children. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 7 (1998) 61-68
41. Famularo R., Kinsherff R., and Fenton T. Propanolol treatment for childhood posttraumatic stress disorder, acute type. American Journal of Diseases of Children 142 (1988) 1244-1247
42. Fein J.A., Kassam-Adams N., Gavin M., Hunag R., Blanchard D., and Datner E.M. Persistence of posttraumatic stress in violently injured youth seen in the emergency department. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine 156 (2002) 836-840
43. Flinn M.V., Quinlan R.J., Decker S.A., Turner M.T., and England B.G. Male-female differences in effects of parental absence on glucocortocoid stress response. Human Nature 7 (1996) 125-162
44. Francis D.D., Young L.J., Meaney M.J., and Insel T.R. Naturally occurring differences in maternal care are associated with the expression of oxytocin and vasopression (V1a) receptors: gender differences. Journal of Neuroendocrinology 14 (2002) 349-353
45. Friedman M.J. Pharmacological approaches to cognitive deficits associated with PTSD. In: Vasterling J.J., and Brewin C.R. (Eds). Neuropsychology of PTSD. Biological, Cognitive, and Clinical Perspectives (2005), The Guilford Press, New York 292-325
46. Gerring J.P., Slomine B., Vasa R.A., Grados M., Chen A., Rising W., et al. Clinical predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder after closed head injury in children. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 41 (2002) 157-165
47. Gill A.C. Risk factors for pediatric posttraumatic stress disorder after traumatic injury. Archives of Psychiatric Nursing XVI (2002) 168-175
48. Green B.L., Korol M., Grace M.C., Vary M.G., Leonard A.C., and Gleser G.C. Children and disaster: age, gender, and parental effects on PTSD symptoms. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 30 (1991) 945-951
49. Gunnar M.R., Morison S.J., Chisholm K., and Chuder M. Salivary cortisol levels in children adopted from Romanian orphanages. Developmental Psychopathology 13 (2001) 611-628
50. Hall E., Saxe G., Stoddard F., Kaplow J., Koenen K., Chawia N., et al. Posttraumatic stress symptoms in parents of children with acute burns. Journal of Pediatric Psychology 31 (2006) 403-412
51. Harmon R., and Rigss P. Clonidine for posttraumatic stress disorder in preschool children. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 35 (1996) 1247-1249
52. Harvey A.G., Brewin C.R., Jones C., and Kopelman M. Coexistence of traumatic brain injury and posttraumatic stress disorder: resolving the paradox. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society 9 (2003) 663-676
53. Harvey A.G., Kopelman M.D., and Brewin C.R. PTSD and traumatic brain injury. In: Vasterling J.J., and Brewin C.R. (Eds). Neuropsychology of PTSD. Biological, Cognitive, and Clinical Perspectives (2005), The Guilford Press, New York 230-246
54. Herskovits E.H., Gerring J.P., Davatzikos C., and Bryan R.N. Is the spatial distribution of brain lesions associated with closed-head injury in children predictive of subsequent development posttraumatic stress disorder?. Radiology 224 (2002) 345-351
55. Hiott D.W., and Labbata L. Anxiety disorders associated with traumatic brain injuries. NeuroRehabilitation 17 (2002) 345-355
56. Holbrook T.L., Hoyt D.B., Coimbra R., Potenza B., Sise M., and Anderson J.P. Long-term posttraumatic stress disorder persists after major trauma in adolescents: new data on risk factors and functional outcome. Journal of Trauma 58 (2005) 764-771
57. Kandel E.W. The molecular biology of memory storage: a dialogue between genes and synapses. Science 294 (2001) 1030-1038
58. Kaplow J.B., Dodge K.A., Amaya-Jackson L., and Saxe G.N. Pathways to PTSD, part II: sexually abused children. American Journal of Psychiatry 162 (2005) 1305-1310
59. Kassam-Adams, N., After the Injury: Helping Parents Help Their Kids, a website Abstract book of ECOTS 2007 and ISTSS 2007.
60. Kassam-Adams N., and Winston F.K. Predicting child PTSD: the relationship between acute stress disorder and PTSD in injured children. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 43 (2004) 403-411
61. Kassam-Adams N., Garcia-España J.F., Fein J.A., and Winston F.K. Heart rate and posttraumatic stress in injured children. Archives of General Psychiatry 62 (2005) 335-340
62. Kassam-Adams N., Garcia-Espana J.F., Miller V.A., and Winston F. Parent-child agreement regarding children's acute stress: the role of parent acute stress reactions. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 45 (2006) 1485-1493
63. Keay K.A., and Bandler R. Parallel circuits mediating distinct emotional coping reactions to different types of stress. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 25 (2001) 669-678
64. Kenardy J.A., Spence S.H., and MacLeod A.C. Screening for posttraumatic stress disorder in children after accidental injury. Pediatrics 118 (2006) 1002-1009
65. Keppel-Benson J.M., Ollendick T.H., and Benson M.J. Post-traumatic stress in children following motor vehicle accidents. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines 43 (2002) 203-212
66. Koenen K.C., Saxe G., Purcell S., Smoller J.W., Bartholomew D., Miller A., et al. Polymorphisms in FKBP5 are associated with peritraumatic dissociation in medically injured children. Molecular Psychiatry 10 (2005) 1058-1059
67. Koolhaas J.M., Korte S.M., De Boer S.F., Van Der Vegt B.J., Van Reenen C.G., Hopster H., et al. Coping styles in animals: current status in behavioral and stress-physiology. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 23 (1999) 925-935
68. Kraemer, B., Moergeli, H., Roth, H., Hepp, U., Schnyder, U., in press. Contribution of initial heart rate to the prediction of posttraumatic stress symptom level in accident victims. Journal of Psychiatric Research.
69. Kuhn E., Blanchard E.B., Fuse T., Hickling E.J., and Broderick J. Heart rate of motor vehicle accident survivors in the emergency department, peritraumatic psychological reactions, ASD, and PTSD severity: a 6-month prospective study. Journal of Traumatic Stress 19 (2006) 735-740
70. Landolt M.A., Vollrath M., Ribi K., Gnehm H.E., and Sennhauser F.H. Incidence and associations of parental and child posttraumatic stress symptoms in pediatric patients. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 44 (2003) 1199-1207
71. Landolt M.A., Vollrath M., Timm K., Gnehm H.E., and Sennhauser F.H. Predicting posttraumatic stress symptoms in children after road traffic accidents. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 44 (2005) 1276-1283
72. Layton B.S., and Wardi-Zonna K. Posttraumatic stress disorder with neurogenic amnesia for the traumatic event. Clinical Neuropsychology 9 (1995) 2-10
73. Levi R.B., Drotar D., Yeates K.O., and Taylor H.G. Posttraumatic stress symptoms in children following orthopedic or traumatic brain injury. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology 28 (1999) 232-243
74. Love B., Byrne C., Roberts J., Browne G., and Borwn B. Adult psychosocial adjustment following childhood injury: the effect of disfigurement. Journal of Burn Care and Rehabilitation 8 (1987) 280-285
75. Martini D.R., Ryan C., Nakayama D., and Ramenofsky M. Psychiatric sequelae after traumatic injury: the Pittsburgh Regatta accident. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 29 (1990) 70-75
76. Mather F.J., Tate R.L., and Hannan T.J. Post-traumatic stress disorder in children following road traffic accidents: a comparison of those with and without mild traumatic brain injury. Brain Injury 12 (2003) 1077-1087
77. Max J.E., Castillo C.S., Robin D.A., Lindgren S.D., Smith Jr. W.L., Sato Y., et al. Posttraumatic stress symptomatology after childhood traumatic brain injury. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 186 (1998) 589-596
78. McDermott B.M., and Cvitanovich A. Posttraumatic stress disorder and emotional problems in children following motor vehicle accidents: an extended case series. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 34 (2000) 446-452
79. Mcmillan T.M. Errors in diagnosing post-traumatic stress disorder after traumatic brain injury. Brain Injury 15 (2001) 39-46
80. Meighen K.G., Hines L.A., and Lagges A.M. Risperidone treatment of preschool children with thermal burns and acute stress disorder. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology 17 (2007) 223-232
81. Meiser-Stedman R. Towards a cognitive-behavioral model of PTSD in children and adolescents. Clinical Child and Family Psychological Review 5 (2002) 217-232
82. Meiser-Stedman R., Yule W., Smith P., Glucksman E., and Dalgleish T. Acute stress disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder in children and adolescents involved in assaults or motor vehicle accidents. American Journal of Psychiatry 162 (2005) 1381-1383
83. Meiser-Stedman R.A., Yule W., Dalgleish T., Smith P., and Glucksman E. The role of the family in child and adolescent posttraumatic stress following attendance at an emergency department. Journal of Pediatric Psychology 31 (2006) 397-402
84. Meiser-Stedman R., Dalgleish T., Smith P., Yule W., and Glucksman E. Diagnostic, demographic, memory quality, and cognitive variables associated with acute stress disorder in children and adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 116 (2007) 65-79
85. Mirza K.A.H., Bhadrinath B.R., Goodyer I.M., and Gilmour C. Post-traumatic stress disorder in children and adolescents following road traffic accidents. British Journal of Psychiatry 172 (1998) 443-447
86. Moore E.L., Terryberry-Spohr L., and Hope D.A. Mild traumatic brain injury and anxiety sequelae: a review of the literature. Brain Injury 20 (2006) 117-132
87. Muris P., Rapee R., Meesters C., Schouten E., and Geers M. Threat perception abnormalities in children: the role of anxiety disorders symptoms, chronic anxiety, and state anxiety. Anxiety Disease 17 (2003) 271-287
88. Nair H.P., Gutman A.R., Davis M., and Young L.J. Central oxytocin, vasopressin, and corticotropin-releasing factor receptor densities in the basal forebrain predict isolation potentiated startle in rats. Journal of Neuroscience 25 (2005) 11479-11488
89. Nelson E.E., and Panksepp J. Brain substrates of infant-mother attachment: contributions of pioids, oxytocin, and norepinephrine. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 22 (1998) 437-452
90. Neumann I.D. Involvement of the brain oxytocin system in stress coping: interactions with the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. Progress in Brain Research 139 (2002) 147-162
91. Nicolson N.A. Childhood parental loss and cortisol levels in adult men. Psychoneuroendocrinology 29 (2004) 1012-1018
92. Nugent N.R., Christopher N.C., and Delahanty D.L. Initial physiological responses and perceived hyperarousal predict subsequent emotional numbing in pediatric injury patients. Journal of Traumatic Stress 19 (2006) 349-359
93. Nugent N.R., Ostrowski S., Christopher N.C., and Delahanty D.L. Parental posttraumatic stress symptoms as a moderator of child's acute biological response and subsequent postrtraumatic stress symptoms in pediatric injury patients. Journal of Pediatric Psychology 8 (2006) 1-10
94. Olff M., Langeland W., and Gersons B.P.R. The psychobiology of PTSD: coping with trauma. Psychoneuroendocrinology 30 (2005) 974-982
95. Olff M., Langeland W., and Gersons B.P.R. Effects of appraisal and coping on the neuroendocrine response to extreme stress. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 29 (2005) 457-467
96. Olff M., Langeland W., Draijer N., and Gersons B.P.R. Gender differences in posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychological Bulletin 133 (2007) 183-204
97. Ostrowski S.A., Christopher N.C., and Delahanty D.L. Brief report: the impact of maternal posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms and child gender on risk for persistent posttraumatic stress disorder in child trauma victims. Journal of Pediatric Psychology 22 (2006) 1-5
98. Ozer E.J., Best S.R., Lipsey T.L., and Weiss D.S. Predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder and symptoms in adults: a meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin 129 (2003) 52-73
99. Perry B.D. Neurobiological sequelae of childhood trauma: PTSD in children. In: Murburg M. (Ed). Catecholamine Function in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Emerging Concepts (1994), American Psychiatric Press, Inc., Washington, DC 233-255
100. Perry B.D., and Pollard R. Homeostasis, stress, trauma, and adaptation: a neurodevelopmental view of childhood trauma. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America 7 (1998) 33-51
101. Perry B.D., Pollard R.A., Blakley T.L., Baker W.L., and Vigilante D. Childhood trauma, the neurobiology of adaptation and use-dependent development of the brain: how states become traits. Infant Mental Health Journal 16 (1995) 271-291
102. Piko B. Gender differences and similarities in adolescents' ways of coping. Psychological Record 51 (2001) 223-236
103. Pitman R.K., and Delahanty D.L. Conceptually driven pharmacologic approaches to acute trauma. CNS Spectrum 10 (2005) 99-106
104. Polan H.J., and Hofer M.A. Psychobiological origins of infant attachment and separation responses. In: Cassidy J., and Shaver P.H. (Eds). Handbook of Attachment: Theory, Research, and Clinical Application (1999), Guilford Press, New York 162-180
105. Poltorak D.Y., and Benore E. Cognitive-behavioral interventions for physical symptom management in pediatric palliative medicine. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America 15 (2006) 683-691
106. Pynoos R.S., and Nader K. Issues in the treatment of post-traumatic stress in children and adolescents. In: Wilson J., and Raphael B. (Eds). International Handbook of Traumatic Stress Syndromes (1993), Plenum Press, New York 535-549
107. Rees G., Gledhill J., Garvalda M.E., and Nadel S. Psychiatric outcome following paediatric intensive care unit (PICU) admission: a cohort study. Intensive Care Medicine 30 (2004) 1607-1614
108. Robert R., Blackeney P.E., Villareal C., Rosenberg L., and Meyer W.J. Imipramine treatment in pediatric burn patients with symptoms of acute stress disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 38 (1999) 873-882
109. Robert R., Meyer III W.J., Villarreal C., Blakeney P.E., Desai M., and Herndon D. An approach to the timely treatment of acute stress disorder. Journal of Burn Care and Rehabilitation 20 (1999) 250-258
110. Rokutan K., Morita K., Masuda K., Tominaga K., Shikishima M., Teshima-Kondo S., et al. Gene expression profiling in peripheral blood leukocytes as a new approach for assessment of human stress response. Journal of Medical Investigation 52 (2005) 137-144
111. Rosmalen J.G.M., Oldehinkel A.J., Ormel J., de Winter A.F., Buitelaar J.K., and Verhulst F.C. Determinants of salivary cortisol levels in 10-12 year old children: a population-based study of individual differences. Psychoneuroendocrinology 30 (2005) 483-495
112. Rusch M.D., Grunert B.K., Sanger J.R., Dzwierzynski W.W., and Matloub H.S. Psychological adjustment in children after traumatic disfiguring injuries: a 12-month follow-up study. Plastic Reconstructive Surgery 106 (2000) 1451-1460
113. Salmon K., and Bryant R.A. Posttraumatic stress disorder in children. The influence of development factors. Clinical Psychology Review 22 (2002) 163-188
114. Sanders M.H., Starr A.J., Frawley W.H., McNuity M.J., and Niacaris T.K. Posttraumatic stress symptoms in children recovering from minor orthopaedic injury and treatment. Journal of Orthopaedic Trauma 19 (2005) 623-628
115. Saxe G.N., Stoddard F.J., Courtney D., Cunningham K., Chawla N., Sheridan R.L., et al. Relationship between acute morphine and the course of PTSD in children with burns. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 40 (2001) 915-921
116. Saxe G., Stoddard F., Chawla N., Lopez C.G., Hall E., Sheridan R., King D., and King L. Risk factors for acute stress disorder in children with burns. Journal of Trauma and Dissociation 6 (2005) 37-49
117. Saxe G.N., Stoddard F., Hall E., Chawla M.A., Lopez C., Sheridan R., et al. Pathways to PTSD, part I: children with burns. American Journal of Psychiatry 162 (2005) 1299-1304
118. Saxe G., Geary M., Bedard K., Bosquet M., Miller A., Koenen K., et al. Separation anxiety as a mediator between acute morphine administration and PTSD symptoms in injured children. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1071 (2006) 41-45
119. Schäfer I., Barkmann C., Riedesser P., and Schulte-Markwort M. Peritraumatic dissociation predicts posttraumatic stress in children and adolescents following road traffc accidents. Journal of Trauma and Dissociation 45 (2004) 79-92
120. Schäfer I., Barkmann C., Riedesser P., and Schulte-Markwort M. Posttraumatic syndromes in children and adolescents after road traffic accidents-a prospective cohort study. Psychopathology 39 (2006) 159-164
121. Scheeringa M.S., and Zeanah C.H. Symptom expression and trauma variables in children under 48 months of age. Infant Mental Health Journal 16 (1995) 259-270
122. Scheeringa M.S., and Zeanah C.H. A relational perspective on PTSD in early childhood. Journal of Traumatic Stress 14 (2001) 799-815
123. Scheeringa M.S., Zeanah C.H., Myers L., and Putnam F.W. New findings on alternative criteria for PTSD in preschool children. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 43 (2003) 561-570
124. Scheeringa M.S., Wright M.J., Hunt J.P., and Zeanah C.H. Factors affecting the diagnosis and prediction of PTSD smptomatology in children and adolescents. American Journal of Psychiatry 163 (2006) 644-651
125. Schnyder U., Moergeli H., Klaghofer R., and Buddeberg C. Incidence and prediction of posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms in severely injured accident victims. American Journal of Psychiatry 158 (2001) 594-599
126. Schrieber S., and Galai-Gat T. Uncontrolled pain following physical injury as the core-trauma in post-traumatic stress disorder. Pain 54 (1993) 107-110
127. Schreier H., Ladakakos C., Morabito D., Chapman L., and Knudson M.M. Posttraumatic stress symptoms in children after mild to moderate pediatric trauma: a longitudinal examination of symptom prevalence, correlates, and parent-child symptom reporting. Journal of Trauma 58 (2005) 353-363
128. Segman R.H., Shefi N., Goltser-Dubner T., Friedman N., Kaminski N., and Shalev A.Y. Peripheral blood mononuclear cell gene expression profiles identify emergent post-traumatic stress disorder among trauma survivors. Molecular Psychiatry 10 (2005) 500-513
129. Seng J.S., Graham-Bermann S.A., Clark K., McCarthy A.M., and Ronis D.L. Posttraumatic stress disorder and physical comorbidity among female children and adolescents: results from service-use data. Pediatrics 116 (2005) 767-776
130. Shalev A.Y., Sahar T., Freedman S., Peri T., Glick N., Brandes D., et al. A prospective study of heart rate response following trauma and the subsequent development of posttraumatic stress disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry 55 (1998) 553-559
131. Stallard P. A retrospective analysis to explore the applicability of the Ehlers and Clark 2000 cognitive model to explain PTSD in children. Behavioral and Cognitive Psychotherapy 31 (2003) 337-345
132. Stallard P., and Smith E. Appraisals and cognitive coping styles associated with chronic post-traumatic symptoms in child road traffic accident survivors. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 48 (2007) 194-201
133. Stallard P., Velleman R., and Baldwin S. Prospective study of post-traumatic stress disorder in children involved in road traffic accidents. British Medical Journal 317 (1998) 1619-1623
134. Stallard P., Velleman R., and Baldwin S. Psychological screening of children for post-traumatic stress disorder. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatrics and Allied Disciplines 40 (1999) 1075-1082
135. Stallard P., Velleman R., and Baldwin S. Recovery from post-traumatic stress disorder in children following road traffic accidents: the role of talking and feeling understood. Journal of Community and Applied Social Psychology 11 (2001) 37-41
136. Stallard P., Salter E., and Velleman R. Posttraumatic stress disorder following road traffic accidents. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 13 (2004) 172-178
137. Stoddard F.J., and Saxe G. Ten-year research review of physical injuries. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 40 (2001) 1128-1145
138. Stoddard F.J., Norman D.K., and Murphy J.M. A diagnostic outcome study of children and adolescents with severe burns. Journal of Trauma 29 (1989) 471-477
139. Stoddard F.J., Saxe G., Ronfeldt H., Drake J.E., Burns J., Edgren C., et al. Acute stress symptoms in young children with burns. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 45 (2006) 87-93
140. Stoddard F.J., Usher C.T., and Abrams A.N. Psychopharmacology in pediatric critical care. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America 15 (2006) 611-655
141. Stoddard F.J., Ronfeldt H., Kagan J., Drake J.E., Snidman N., Murphy J.M., et al. Young burned children: the course of acute stress and physiological and behavioral responses. American Journal of Psychiatry 163 (2006) 1084-1090
142. Strawn, J.R., Geracioti, Jr. T.D., in press. Noradrenergic dysfunction and the psychopharmacology of posttraumatic stress disorder. Depression and Anxiety.
143. Stuber M.L., and Shemesh E. Post-traumatic stress response to life-threatening illnesses in children and their parents. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America 15 (2006) 597-609
144. Stuber M.L., Schneider S., Kassam-Adams N., Kazak A.E., and Saxe G. The medical traumatic stress toolkit. CNS Spectrum 11 (2006) 137-142
145. Sturms L.M., van der Sluis C.K., Stewart R.E., Groothoff J.W., ten Duis H.J., and Eisma W.H. A prospective study on paediatric traffic injuries: health-related quality of life and post-traumatic stress. Clinical Rehabilitation 19 (2005) 312-322
146. Southwick S.M., Krystal J.H., Bremner J.D., Morgan III C.A., Nicolaou A.L., Nagy L.M., et al. Noradrenergic and serotonergic function in PTSD. Archives of General Psychiatry 54 (1997) 749-758
147. Tcheung W.J., Robert R., Rosenberg L., Rosenberg M., Villarreal C., Thomas C., et al. Early treatment of acute stress disorder in children with major burn injury. Pediatric Critical Care Medicine 6 (2005) 676-681
148. Van der Kolk B.A., and Fisler R.E. Childhood abuse and neglect and loss of self-regulation. Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic 58 (1994) 145-168
149. Van Emmerik A.A., Kamphuis J.H., Hulsbosch A.M., and Emmelkamp P.M. Single session debriefing after psychological trauma: a meta-analysis. Lancet 360 (2002) 766-771
150. Vasa R.A., Grados M., Slomine B., Herskovits E.H., Thompson R.E., Salorio C., et al. Neuroimaging correlates of anxiety after pediatric traumatic brain injury. Biological Psychiatry 55 (2004) 208-216
151. Vermetten E., and Bremner J.D. Circuits and systems in stress. 1. Preclinical studies. Depression and Anxiety 15 (2002) 126-147
152. Wade S.L., Carey J., and Wolfe C.R. An online family intervention to reduce parental distress following pediatric brain injury. Journal of Consultative and Clinical Psychology 74 (2006) 445-454
153. Walsh T.M., Stewart S.H., McLaughlin E., and Comeau N. Gender differences in childhood anxiety sensitivity index (CASI) dimensions. Anxiety Disease 18 (2004) 695-706
154. Ward-Begnoche W.L. Posttraumatic stress disorder in the pediatric intensive care unit. Journal for Specialists in Pediatric Nursing 12 (2007) 84-92
155. Ward-Begnoche W.L., Aitken M.E., Liggin R., Mullins S.H., Kassam-Adams N., Marks A., et al. Emergency department screening for risk for post-traumatic stress disorder among injured children. Injury Prevention 12 (2006) 323-326
156. Westenbroek C., Ter Horst G.J., Roos M.H., Kuiper S.D., and Trentani A. Gender-specific effects of social housing in rats after chronic mild stress exposure. Progress in Neuropsychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry 27 (2003) 21-30
157. Wilson G.S., Pritchard M.E., and Revalee B. Individual differences in adolescent health symptoms: the effects of gender and coping. Journal of Adolescence 28 (2005) 369-379
158. Winston F.K., Baxt C., Kassam-Adams N.L., Elliott M.R., and Kallan M.J. Acute traumatic stress symptoms in child occupants and their parent drivers after crash involvement. Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine 159 (2005) 1074-1079
159. Winston F.K., Kassam-Adams N., Vivarelli-O'Neill C., Ford J., Newman E., and Baxt C. Acute stress disorder symptoms in children and their parents after pediatric traffic injury. Pediatrics 109 (2002) 90-96
160. Winston F.K., Kassam-Adams N., Garcia-Espaňa, Ittenbach R., and Cnaas A. Screening for risk of persistent posttraumatic stress in injured children and their parents. Journal of the American Medical Association 290 (2003) 643-649
161. Yamamoto Y., Carter C.S., and Cushing B.S. Neonatal manipulation of oxytocin affects expression of estrogen receptor alpha. Neuroscience 137 (2006) 157-164
162. Yehuda R., Halligan S.L., and Grossman R. Childhood trauma and risk for PTSD: relationship to intergenerational effects of trauma, parental PTSD, and cortisol excretion. Development Psychopathology 13 (2001) 733-753
163. Zatzick D., and Roy-Byrne P. Psychopharmacologic approaches to the management of posttraumatic stress disorders in the acute care medical sector. Seminars on Clinical Neuropsychiatry 8 (2003) 168-174
164. Zatzick D.F., Russo J., Pitman R.K., Rivara F., Jurkovich G., and Roy-Byrne P. Reevaluating the association between emergency department heart rate and the development of posttraumatic stress disorder: a public health approach. Biological Psychiatry 57 (2005) 91-95
165. Zatzick D.F., Grossman D.C., Russo J., Pynoos R., Berliner L., Jurkovich G., et al. Predicting posttraumatic stress symptoms longitudinally in a representative sample of hospitalized injured adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 45 (2006) 1188-1195
166. Ziegler M.F., Greenwald M.H., DeGuzman M.A., and Simon H.K. Posttraumatic stress responses in children: awareness and practice among a sample of pediatric emergency care providers. Pediatrics 115 (2005) 1261-1267
167. Zink K.A., and McCain G.C. Post-traumatic stress disorder in children and adolescents with motor vehicle-related injuries. Journal for Specialists in Pediatric Nursing 8 (2003) 99-106