Climate change litigation as pluralist legal dialogue?

Stanford Journal of International Law

Volumn 43 A, Issue 1, 2007, Pages 181-237

  Osofsky, Hari M ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF OREGON   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 35349028371     PISSN: 07315082     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (275)

1. I have described this geography in depth in Hari M. Osofsky, The Geography of Climate Change Litigation: Implications for Transnational Regulatory Governance, 83 WASH U. L.Q. 1789 (2005) and Hari M. Osofsky, The Geography of Climate Change Litigation Part II: Narratives of Nation-States and Thirdspace (draft on file with author). The third article in this trilogy will explore issues of culture and identity.
2. See Massachusetts v. EPA, 127 S.Ct. 1438 (2007).
3. See id.
4. See Greenwire, November 9, 2006, http://www.eenews.net/Greenwire/ 2006/11/09/#1.
5. See California Climate Change Portal, http://www.climatechange.ca. gov/ (last visited May 1, 2007); see also Complaint, Connecticut v. Am. Elec. Power Co., 406 F. Supp. 2d 265 (S.D.N.Y. 2005) (No. 04 Civ 5669), available at http://caag.state.ca.us/newsalerts/2004/04-076.pdf; Massachusetts v. EPA, supra note 2; Complaint for Declaratory and Injunctive Relief (Second Amended), Friends of the Earth, Inc., v. Watson, No. 02-4106 (N.D. Cal. Sept. 3, 2002), available at http://www. climatelawsuit.org/documents/Complaint_2Amended_Declr_Inj_Relief.pdf.; Complaint, People of the State of California v. General Motors Corp., et. al, available at http://ag.ca.gov/newsalerts/cms06/06-082_0a.pdf.
6. See International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives, Cities for Climate Protection, available at http://www.iclei.org/co2/ index.htm.
7. The term "Westphalian" references the treaties that constituted the Peace of Westphalia and established the nation-state as the primary subject and object of international law. See Peace Treaty Between the Holy Roman Emperor and the King of France and Their Respective Allies, Preamble, Oct. 24, 1648, available at http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/westphal.htm [hereinafter Peace Treaty].
8. See IAN BROWNLIE, PRINCIPLES OF PUBLIC INTERNATIONAL LAW 287-88 (6th ed. 2003).
9. An extensive scholarly literature has debated the extent of formal international law's significance. See, e.g., Ryan Goodman & Derek Jinks, Measuring the Effects of Human Rights Treaties, 14 EUR. J. INT'L L. (2003);
10. Oona A. Hathaway, Do Human Rights Treaties Make a Difference?, 111 YALE L.J. 1935 (2002);
11. Harold Hongju Koh, Why Do Nations Obey International Law?, 106 YALE L.J. 2599 (1997).
12. Myres S. McDougal, W. Michael Reisman & Andrew R. Willard, The World Community: A Planetary Social Process, 21 U.C. DAVIS L. REV. 807, 808-09 (1987-88). This theme is reiterated throughout the New Haven School scholarship.
13. See HAROLD D. LASSWELL & MYRES S. MCDOUGAL, JURISPRUDENCE FOR A FREE SOCIETY: STUDIES IN LAW, SCIENCE AND POLICY 144-45 (1992);
14. Myres S. McDougal Se Harold D. Lasswell, The Identification and Appraisal of Diverse Systems of Public Order, 53 AM. J. INT'L L. 1, 6-7 (1959).
15. See infra Section U.C.
16. Berman, infra note 46.
17. Balakrishnan Rajagopal, The Role of Law in Counter-hegemonic Globalization and Global Legal Pluralism: Lessons from the Narmada Valley Struggle in India, 18 LEIDEN J. INT'L L. 18 (2005).
18. See infra note 107 for one example of this debate.
19. See Osofsky, supra note 1, at 1794.
20. As I have responded to John Knox's commentary on this piece in the Opinio Juris Inaugural On-Line Symposium, the focus on binding law between nation-states limits the narratives that can be told. See Hari M. Osofsky, Symposium: Osofsky Reply to Knox, http://www.opiniojuris.org/posts/ 1175180978.shtml (posted Mar. 29, 2007).
21. See, e.g., Lauren Benton, Colonial Law and Cultural Difference: Jurisdictional Politics and the Formation of the Colonial State, 41 COMP. STUDIES IN SOC. & HIST. 563 (1999) (exploring the jurisdiction disputes that helped to form the colonial state and to respond to contested cultural boundaries);
22. Michelle A. McKinley, How Did the Subaltern Speak? Divorce and Concubinage Claims in Ecclesiastical. Courts in Lima, 1632-1936, __ L. & HISTORY REV. __ (forthcoming 2007) (examining lower-caste women's engagement with the legal system in colonial and republican Peru);
23. Shalini Randeria, Globalization of Law, Environmental Justice, World Bank, NGOs and the Cunning State in India, 51 CURRENT SOCIOLOGY 305 (2003) ("delineat[ing] the trajectories of the glocalization of law by examining the interplay between the World bank, NGOS, and the state in India").
24. I plan to explore this concept in depth, especially with respect to scale, in Multiscalar Global Legal Pluralism, a piece which has arisen in part as a response to Paul Berman's draft article, Global Legal Pluralism, infra note 46.
25. Global legal pluralism is a term used widely in the legal pluralism literature oriented towards international and transnational legal problems. I pose "multiscalar global" as the relevant "scale," however, to signify that the multiscalar dynamics of climate change litigation and many other transnational legal problems are not adequately captured by the term "global." See supra note 18.
26. See Petition to the Inter American Commission on Human Rights Seeking Relief from Violations Resulting from Global Warming Caused by Acts and Omissions of the United States (submitted Dec. 7, 2005), at 13-20, available at http://www.earthjustice.org/library/legal_docs/petition-to-the-inter- american-commission-on-human-rights-on-behalf-of-the-inuit-circumpolar- conference.pdf [hereinafter Inuit Petition].
27. See Presentation by Sheila Watt-Cloutier, Chair, Inuit Circumpolar Conference Eleventh Conference of Parties to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change Montreal, December 7, 2005, http://www.inuitcircumpolar.com/ index.php?ID=318&Lang=En.
28. See Osofsky, The Geography of Climate Change Litigation, supra note 1.
29. YI-FU TUAN, SPACE AND PLACE: THE PERSPECTIVE OF LIVED EXPERIENCE 6 (1977).
30. See id. Notable exceptions to this rule include In re Quantification of Envtl. Costs, 578 N.W.2d 794, 796-97 (Minn. Ct. App. 1998), in which a trade association representing numerous companies involved in the lignite coal industry attempted to block environmental cost valuation that included carbon dioxide, and Central Valley Chrysler-Jeep v. Witherspoon, 2006 WL 2600149 (E.D.Cal. Sep 11, 2006) (NO. CVF046663AWILJO), as well as two other superior court cases, discussed infra Section III.1, in which plaintiffs involved in the automobile industry attempted to block California's efforts to regulate emissions from cars.
31. Sheila Watt-Cloutier, Chair of the Inuit Circumpolar Conference, has been explicit about the limited formal value of the Inuit Petition. See infra note 44 and accompanying text. I have discussed some of the implications of this framing in Hari M. Osofsky, The Inuit Petition as a Bridge?: Beyond Dialectics of Climate Change and Indigenous Peoples' Rights, 31 AM. INDIAN L. REV. 2 (forthcoming 2007).
32. See Alexander B. Murphy, Geography's Place in Higher Education in the United States, 31 J. GEOGRAPHY IN HIGHER EDUC. 21, 122-23 (2007).
33. An extensive scholarly debate, which is beyond the scope of this paper, exists over what globalization means and what its implications should be. For a useful summary of that discourse, see David Held & Andrew McGrew, The Great Globalization Debate: An Introduction, in THE GLOBAL TRANSFORMATIONS READER: AN INTRODUCTION TO THE GLOBALIZATION DEBATE 1 (David Held & Andrew McGrew, eds., 2d ed., 2003);
34. see also Terence C. Halliday & Pavel Osinsky, Globalization of Law 32 ANNUAL REV. SOCIOLOGY 447 (2006).
35. I explore the multiple meanings of the term scale in Section V.A.
36. The limited international law and geography literature prior to the 1980s includes: HANS WEIGERT, GENERALS AND GEOGRAPHERS: THE TWILIGHT OF GEOPOLITICS (1942);
37. JOHN H. WIGMORE, A PANORAMA OF THE WORLD'S LEGAL SYSTEMS (1928);
38. John Henry Wigmore, A Map of the World's Law, 19 GEOGRAPHICAL REVIEW 114 (1929).
39. For examples of the emerging international and comparative law and geography literature, see Keith Aoki, Space Invaders: Critical Geography, the "Third World" in International Law and Critical Race Theory, 45 VILL. L. REV. 913 (2000);
40. Matthew R. Auer, Geography, Domestic Politics and Environmental Diplomacy: A Case from the Baltic Sea Region, 11 GEO. INT'L ENVTL. L. REV. 77 (1998);
41. Paul Schiff Berman, The Globalization of Jurisdiction, 151 U. PA. L. REV. 311 (2002);
42. Richard T. Ford, Law's Territory (A History of Jurisdiction), 97 MICH. L. REV. 843 (1999);
43. Osofsky, The Geography of Climate Change Litigation, supra note 1;
44. Kal Raustiala, The Geography of Justice, 73 FORDAM L. REV. 2501 (2005);
45. Robert R.M. Verchick, Critical Space Theory: Keeping Local Geography in American and European Environmental Law, 73 TUL. L. REV. 739 (1999).
46. Roger Paul Alford, Roper v. Simmons and Our Constitution in International Equipoise, 53 UCLA L. REV. 1 (2005).
47. Diane Marie Amann, International Law and Rehnquist-Era Reversals, 94 GEO. L.J. 1319 (2006).
48. Rex D. Glensy, Which Countries Count? Lawrence v. Texas and the Selection of Foreign Persuasive Authority, 45 VA. J. INT'L L. 357 (2005).
49. Vicki C. Jackson, The Early Hours of the Post-World War II Model of Constitutional Federalism: The Warren Court and the World, in EARL WARREN AND THE WARREN COURT: THEIR LEGACY IN AMERICAN AND FOREIGN LAW (Harry Scheiber ed., 2005).
50. Joan L. Larsen, Importing Constitutional Norms from a "Wider Civilization": Lawrence and the Rehnquist Court's Use of Foreign and International Law in Domestic Constitutional Analysis, 65 OHIO ST. L.J. 1283 (2004).
51. Janet Koven Levit, A Tale of International Law in the Heartland: Torres and the Role of State Courts in Transnational Legal Conversation, 12 TULSA J. COMP. & INT'L L. 163 (2004).
52. See Resnik, infra note 51.
53. ANNE-MARIE SLAUGHTER, A NEW WORLD ORDER 65-103 (2004);
54. Anne-Marie Slaughter, A Global Community of Courts, 44 HARV. INT'L L.J. 191 (2003);
55. Anne-Marie Slaughter, Judicial Globalization, 40 VA. J. INT'L L. 1103 (2000).
56. See Melissa A. Waters, Mediating Norms and Identity: The Role of Transnational Judicial Dialogue in Creating and Enforcing International Law, 93 GEO. L.J. 487, 490-97 (2005).
57. Janet Levit has discussed this focus on federal courts in her piece on the role of state courts in transnational legal conversation, see Levit, supra note 35, at 183-85 (2004), as have I, see Hari M. Osofsky, Local Approaches to Transnational Corporate Responsibility: Mapping the Role of Subnational Climate Change Litigation, 20 GLOBAL BUS. & DEV. L.J._(forthcoming 2007).
58. Judith Resnik represents an exception to this trend by looking at the more informal ways in which ideas migrate into judicial thought. See Resnik, infra note 51.
59. See, e.g., Massachusetts v. EPA, 415 F.3d 50 (D.C. Cir. 2005), cert. granted, 2006 WL 1725113 (U.S. Dist. Col. June 26, 2006) (No. 05-1120); Connecticut v. Am. Elec. Power Co., 406 F. Supp. 2d 265 (S.D.N.Y. 2005); Friends of the Earth, Inc. v. Watson, 2005 WL 2035596 (N.D. Cal. Aug. 23, 2005) (No. 02-4106); Gbemre v. Shell Petroleum Dev. Co. Nigeria Ltd. et al., [2005] - F.H.CN.L.R. - (Nigeria), available at www.climatelaw.org/media/ gas.flaring.suit.nov2005/ni.shell.nov05.decision.pdf; Australian Conservation Found, v. Latrobe City Council, [2004] V.C.A.T. 2029 (Vict. Civ. & Admin. Trib. Oct. 29, 2004); In re Quantification of Envtl. Costs, 578 N.W.2d 794 (Minn. Ct. App. 1998).
60. See In re Quantification of Envtl. Costs, 578 N.W.2d at 800; see also Osofsky, Local Approaches to Transnational Corporate Responsibility, supra note 33; Stephanie Stern, State Action as Political Voice in Climate Change Policy: The Minnesota Environmental Cost Valuation Regulation, in ADJUDICATING CLIMATE CHANGE: SUB-NATIONAL, NATIONAL, AND SUPRA-NATIONAL APPROACHES (William C.G. Burns & Hari M. Osofsky, eds.) (forthcoming 2007, Cambridge University Press).
61. See Holly Doremus, Science Plays Defense: Natural Resource Management in the Bush Administration, 32 ECOLOGY L.Q. 249 (2005);
62. Holly Doremus & A. Dan Tarlock, Science, Judgment, and Controversy in Natural Resource Regulation, 26 PUB. LAND & RESOURCES L. REV. 1 (2005);
63. Holly Doremus, The Purposes, Effects, and Future of the Endangered Species Act's Best Available Science Mandate, 34 ENVTL. L. 397 (2004);
64. Holly Doremus, Listing Decisions Under the Endangered Species Act: Why Better Science Isn't Always Better Policy, 75 WASH. U. L.Q. 1029 (1997).
65. See Presentation by Sheila Watt-Cloutier, Chair, Inuit Circumpolar Conference, Eleventh Conference of Parties to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change Montreal, December 7, 2005, http://www.inuitcircumpolar.com/ index.php?ID=318&Lang=En.
66. For accounts of some of these different approaches, see Sally Engle Merry, Legal Pluralism, 22 LAW & SOC'Y REV. 869 (1988),
67. Emmanuel Melissaris, The More the Merrier? A New Take on Legal Pluralism, 13 SOC. & L. STUDIES 57 (2004),
68. and Dalia Tsuk, The New Deal Origins of American Legal Pluralism, 29 FLA. ST. U. L. REV. 189 (2001).
69. See Robert M. Cover, The Supreme Court 1982 Term Foreword: Nomos and Narrative, 97 HARV. L. REV. 4 (1983);
70. Ambreena Manji, 'Like a Mask Dancing': Law and Colonialism in Chinua Achebe's Arrow of God, 27 J. LAW & SOC. 626 (2000);
71. Paul Schiff Berman, Global Legal Pluralism (draft manuscript, on file with author). The New Haven School of international law has characterized law as "a process of authoritative decision by which members of a community clarify and secure their common interests" and claimed that "humankind today lives in a whole hierarchy of interpenentrating communities, from the local to the global." HAROLD D. LASSWELL & MYRES S. MCDOUGAL, JURISPRUDENCE FOR A FREE SOCIETY: STUDIES IN LAW, SCIENCE AND POLICY, at xxi (1992).
72. See supra note 45 & 46.
73. For an exploration of what it might mean for choice of law to designate non-state normative orders as law, see Ralf Michaels, The Re-State-Ment of Non-State Law: The State, Choice of Law, and the Challenge from Global Legal Pluralism, 51 WAYNE L. REV. 1209 (2005). For an exploration of the concept of micro-law, see W. MICHAEL REISMAN, LAW IN BRIEF ENCOUNTERS (1999).
74. For an interesting proposed model for global legal pluralism that focuses largely on procedural aspects of creating such a regime, see Berman, supra note 40.
75. For a description of the Westphalian model, see BROWNLIE, supra note 8, at 287-88 and Michael J. Kelly, Pulling at the Threads of Westphalia: "Involuntary Sovereignty Waiver," Revolutionary International Legal Theory or Return to Rule by the Great Powers, 10 UCLA J. INT'L L. 361 (2005).
76. Judith Resnik, Law's Migration: American Exceptionalism, Silent Dialogues, and Federalism's Multiple Ports of Entry, 115 YALE L.J. 1564 (2006). The article's analysis of these ports of entry includes a discussion of local policymaking on climate change. See id. at 1643-47.
77. For example, California's serving as a plaintiff and defendant in climate change litigation occurs in the broader context of its legislative action on climate change, the efforts of its representatives in Congress, and the efforts of its cities. I discuss California's role in climate change litigation and policy in more detail infra Part III.
78. This view of pluralism represents just one possible articulation of the concept in the context of the international legal system. For examples of the range of ways in which the concept of pluralism has been used recently in the international law context, see Luisa Antoniolli, Taking Legal Pluralism Seriously: The Alien Tort Claims Act and the Role of International Law Before U.S. Federal Courts, 12 IND. J. GLOBAL LEGAL STUD. 651 (2005);
79. Berman, supra note 40; Michaels, supra note 48; William W. Burke-White, International Legal Pluralism, 25 MICH. J. INT'L L. 963 (2004);
80. see also Janet Koven Levit, A Bottom-Up Approach to International Law Making: The Tale of Three Trade Finance Instruments, 30 YALE J. INT'L L. 125 (2005).
81. The state, through its size and significant capacity to produce or reduce greenhouse gas emissions, has long been important to this dialogue. For scholarly accounts of subnational efforts regarding climate change, see BARRY G. RABE, STATEHOUSE AND GREENHOUSE: THE EMERGING POLITICS OF AMERICAN CLIMATE CHANGE POLICY (2004) (discussing state-level initiatives regarding climate change);
82. Donald A. Brown, Thinking Globally and Acting Locally: The Emergence of Global Environmental Problems and the Critical Need to Develop Sustainable Development Programs at State and Local Levels in the United States, 5 DICK. J. ENVTL. L & POL'Y 175 (1996) (providing recommendations for subnational responses);
83. Ann E. Carlson, Federalism, Preemption, and Greenhouse Gas Emissions, 37 U.C. DAVIS L. REV. 281 (2003) (exploring the federalism issues raised by California's innovative regulatory approach);
84. Kirsten H. Engel & Scott R. Saleska, Subglobal Regulation of the Global Commons: The Case of Climate Change, 32 ECOLOGY L.Q. 183 (2005) (providing a law and economics argument for subnational action as part of a regulatory scheme);
85. David R. Hodas, State Law Responses to Global Warming: Is It Constitutional to Think Globally and Act Locally, 21 PACE ENVTL. L. REV. 53 (2003) (analyzing the constitutionality of state responses);
86. Laura Kosloff & Mark Trexler, State Climate Change Initiatives: Think Locally, Act Globally, 18 WTR NAT. RESOURCES & ENV'T 46 (2004) (describing subnational initiatives);
87. Robert B. McKinstry, Jr., Laboratories for Local Solutions for Global Problems: State, Local and Private Leadership in Developing Strategies to Mitigate the Causes and Effects of Climate Change, 12 PENN ST. ENVTL. L. REV. 15 (2004) (same);
88. Barry G. Rabe, North American Federalism and Climate Change Policy: American State and Canadian Provincial Policy Development, 14 WIDENER L.J. 121 (2004) (analyzing the extent to which subnational actors have achieved their climate goals);
89. Resnik, supra note 51, at 1643-47 (discussing local Kyoto Protocol pleadges); Stern, supra note 42 (analyzing state action as political voice).
90. Massachusetts v. EPA, S.Ct., 2007 WL 957332 (U.S.) (Apr. 2, 2007).
91. See sources supra note 35. Accord Nick Miles, Top US Court to Take on CO2 Case, BBC NEWS, June 27, 2006, available at http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/5118792.stm; Supreme Court to Hear Key Environment Case, N.Y. TIMES, June 26, 2006, available at http://www.nytimes.com/2006/06/26/washington/AP- Scotus-Greenhouse-Gases. html?hp&ex=1151380800&en=43ce6578058bddbf&ei=5094&partner= homepage.
92. Petition for Writ of Certiorari, Massachusetts v. EPA, 2006 WL 558353 (U.S.) (No. 05-1120).
93. I have elsewhere explored the confluence of scale, science, and law in this case. See Hari M. Osofsky, The Intersection of Scale, Science, and Law in Massachusetts v. EPA,_OR. REV. INT'L L. _ (forthcoming 2007).
94. See Petition for Review, California v. NHTSA, available at http://ag.ca.gov/newsalerts/cms06/06-046_0a.pdf (May 2, 2006).
95. Comments on Proposed Light Truck Corporate Average Fuel Economy Standards for MY 2008-2011 and on Draft Environmental Assessment [DOT DMS Docket Number 2005-22223], Nov. 22, 2005, available at http://ag.ca.gov/newsalerts/ cms06/06-046_0b.pdf.
96. This area also has a significant smog problem. See Chris Bowman, Study Puts Price Tag on Smog: Health Impacts Said to Cost $1000 a Person in San Joaquin Valley, 3/30/06 SACRAMENTO BEE A3.
97. See Complaint, Central Valley Chrysler-Jeep v. Witherspoon, 2006 WL 2600149 (E.D.Cal. Sep 11, 2006) (NO. CVF046663AWILJO), 2004 WL 5001055 (E.D.Cal.).
98. The most recent ruling in this case is Central Valley, 2007 WL 135688 (E.D.Cal. Jan. 16, 2007) (NO. CVF046663AWILJO).
99. See Samantha Young, EPA Revives California Emissions Rule, Associated Press, Apr. 4, 2007, http://www.boston.com/news/nation/articles/2007/ 04/04/epa_revives_california_emissions_rule/.
100. See Fresno Dodge, Inc. et. al. v. California Air Resources Board and Witherspoon, Superior Court of California (Fresno County), Case No. 04CE CG03498; General Motors Corp. et. al. v. California Air Resources Board and Widierspoon, Superior Court of California (Fresno County), No. 05CE CG02787; AB 1493 Informational Hearing, http://www.assembly.ca.gov/acs/committee/c24/ hearings/AB1493background.doc; California Environmental Protection Agency Air Resources Board, Public Meeting Agenda, Apr. 26, 2007, http://www.arb.ca.gov/ board/ma/2007/ma042607.htm.
101. See Complaint, California v. General Motors Corp., supra note 5.
102. See Press Release, Office of the Attorney General, State of California, Attorney General Lockyer Files Lawsuit Against "Big Six" Automakers for Global Warming Damages in California, Sept. 20, 2006, available at http://ag.ca.gov/newsalerts/release.php?id=1338&year= 2006&month=9.
103. See Complaint, California v. General Motors Corp., supra note 5, at ¶ 40.
104. See id. ¶¶ 57-70.
105. See id. at Relief Requested.
106. Complaint, American Electric, supra note 5, at 1; see also American Electric, 406 F. Supp. 2d 265.
107. Complaint, American Electric, supra note 4, at 30-41.
108. See id. at Prayer for Relief.
109. Am. Elec. Power Co., 406 F. Supp. 2d at 274.
110. See U.S. Chamber of Commerce, Public Nuisance Litigation, http://www.uschamber.com/nclc/caselist/issues/public_nuisance_litigation.htm.
111. Non-Binding Statement of Issues of Petitioners, Coke Oven Environmental Task Force v. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Case No. 06-1131 (Sept. 3, 2003).
112. Joint Motion to Sever Portions of Case Nos. 06-1148 and 06-1149 and Hold in Abeyance, Coke Oven Environmental Task Force v. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Case No. 06-1131 (July 10, 2006).
113. Complaint for Declaratory and Injunctive Relief (Second Amended), Friends of the Earth, supra note 5.
114. Id. at 2.
115. Friends of the Earth v. Mosbacher, 2007 WL 962955 (N.D.Cal.) (Mar. 30, 2007).
116. I have analyzed these interconnections with respect to ties to place for three of these cases in Osofsky, supra note 1, at 1827-35, 1838-40.
117. See U.S. Supreme Court Brief for the Petitioners, Massachusetts v. EPA, 415 F.3d 50 (D.C Cir. 2005); 2005 WL 257460.
118. The duty to act in good faith with respect to treaty obligations is one of the most well-established precepts of international law. For an in-depth analysis of that principle, see J.D. O'CONNOR, GOOD FAITH IN INTERNATIONAL LAW (1991).
119. Article 2 lays out the objectives of the convention: The ultimate objective of this Convention and any related legal instruments that the Conference of the Parties may adopt is to achieve, in accordance with the relevant provisions of the Convention, stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system. Such a level should be achieved within a time-frame sufficient to allow ecosystems to adapt naturally to climate change, to ensure that food production is not threatened and to enable economic development to proceed in a sustainable manner. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, art. 2, May 9, 1992, S. Treaty Doc. No. 102-38, 1771 U.N.T.S. 164, available at http://untreaty.un.org/English/ notpubl/unfccc_eng.pdf [hereinafter UNFCC].
120. See Complaint, California v. General Motors Corp., supra note 5.
121. The Complaint states: According to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ("Framework Convention"), to which the United States is a party, global warming is "a change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods. Id. ¶ 22.
122. Complaint for Declaratory and Injunctive Relief (Second Amended), Friends of the Earth, supra note 5.
123. Id. at 2.
124. Friends of the Earth v. Mosbacher, 2007 WL 962955 (N.D.Cal.) (Mar. 30, 2007).
125. Complaint, Connecticut v. Am. Electric Co. supra note 5, at Prayer for Relief.
126. See Complaint, California v. General Motors Corp., supra note 5, at Relief Requested. For an analysis of the insurance implications of that damages suit, see Jeffrey W. Stempel, Insurance and Climate Change Litigation, in ADJUDICATING CLIMATE CHANGE: SUB-NATIONAL, NATIONAL, AND SUPRA-NATIONAL APPROACHES (William C.G. Burns & Hari M. Osofsky, eds.) (forthcoming 2007, Cambridge University Press).
127. Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, Dec. 10, 1997, 37 I.L.M. 22, available at http://untreaty.un.org/ English/notpubl/kyotoen.htm [hereinafter Kyoto Protocol]; see also MICHAEL GRUBB WITH CHRISTIAAN VROLIJK & DUNCAN BRACK, THE KYOTO PROTOCOL: A GUIDE AND ASSESSMENT (1999). For President Bush's announcement of the U.S. decision not to ratify Kyoto, see President George W. Bush, Speech Discussing Global Climate Change (June 11, 2001), available at http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/ 2001/06/20010611-2.html. For analysis of climate change litigation in light of the U.S. nonparticipation in Kyoto,
128. see Richard W. Thackeray, Jr., Note, Struggling for Air: The Kyoto Protocol, Citizens' Suits Under the Clean Air Act, and the United States' Options for Addressing Global Climate Change, 14 IND. INT'L & COMP. L. REV. 855, 884-98 (2004)
129. and see also William C.G. Burns, The Exigencies that Drive Potential Causes of Action for Climate Change Damages at the International Level, 98 AM. SOC'Y INT'L L. PROC. 223 (2004).
130. th Cong., 2d. Sess (proposed by Henry Waxman), available at http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/getdoc.cgi?dbname=109_cong_bills& docid=f:h5642ih.txt.pdf.
131. California Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 (AB 32), Cal. Health & Safety Code §§ 38500 et seq.
132. Id. For the Governor's press release announcing the signing of the Act, see Press Release, Office of the Governor, Governor Schwarzenegger Signs Landmark Legislation to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions, Sept. 27, 2006, available at http://www.climatechange.ca.gov/documents/2006-09- 27_AB32_GOV_NEWS_RELEASE.PDF.
133. Schwarzenegger explained in a recent interview that he decided to appear on "Pimp My Ride" talking about bio-diesel '65 Chevy Impala in order to "show that biofuel is not some wimpy feminine car, like a hybrid." Karen Breslau, The Green Giant, NEWSWEEK, Apr. 16, 2007, at 51-52.
134. See Press Release, supra note 84.
135. See ICLEI Website, Regional Membership Lists by Country, http://www.iclei.org/index.php?id=1387®ion=NA (last visited Jan. 31, 2007).
136. See ICLEI Website, CCP: Participants, http://www.iclei.org/index. php?id=1121 (last visited Jan. 31, 2007); see also Fact Sheet, California Climate Activities, http://www.climatechange.ca.gov/climate_action_team/ factsheets/2005-06_CLIMATE-ACTIVITIES_FS.PDF (last visited Jan. 31, 2007).
137. See City of Los Angeles Webpage, Council Actions, http://www.lacity.org/ead/EADWeb-AQD/council_actions.htm (last visited Jan. 31, 2007).
138. See City of Los Angeles Webpage, Awards Received, http://www.lacity.org/ead/EADWeb-AQD/awards_received.htm (last visited Jan. 31, 2007).
139. See Tomas Alex Tizon, Mayor Is on a Mission to Warm U.S. Cities to the Kyoto Protocol, L.A. TIMES, Feb. 22, 2005, at A15.
140. See Press Release, Senator Barbara Boxer, Boxer Announces EPW Subcommittee Chairmanships (Nov. 16, 2006), available at http://boxer.senate.gov/news/releases/record.cfm?id=265965.
141. See Press Release, Senator Barbara Boxer, Boxer, Bingaman, and Lieberman Ask President to Commit to Working with Congress to Fight Global Warming (Nov. 15, 2006), available at http://boxer.senate.gov/news/releases/ record.cfm?id=265906&&.
142. Safe Climate Act of 2007, supra note 93; Press Release, Congresswoman Nancy Pelosi, Pelosi Co-Sponsors Legislation to Stop Global Warming (July 25, 2006), available at http://www.house.gov/pelosi/press/ releases/July06/GlobalWarming.html.
143. For a discussion of transnational judicial process, which analyzes the way in which norms become internalized in international lawmaking, see Harold Hongju Koh, Transnational Legal Process, 75 NEB. L. REV. 181 (1996);
144. Harold Hongju Koh, Jefferson Memorial Lecture: Transnational Legal Process After September 11th, 22 BERKELEY J. INT'L L. 337, 339 (2004).
145. For their approach to international law, see JACK L. GOLDSMITH & ERIC A. POSNER, THE LIMITS OF INTERNATIONAL LAW (2005). For reactions to that approach,
146. see Paul Schiff Berman, Seeing Beyond the Limits of International Law, 84 TEX. L. REV. 1265 (2006) (book review);
147. Oona A. Hathaway Se Ariel N. Lavinbuk, Rationalism and Revisionism in International Law, 119 HARV. L. REV. 1404 (2006) (book review);
148. Edward T. Swaine, Restoring (and Risking) Interest in International Law, 100 AM J. INT'L L. 259 (2006) (book review);
149. Anne van Aaken, To Do Away With International Law? Some Limits to The Limits of International Law, '17 EUR. J. INT'L L. 289 (2006) (book review);
150. Symposium, The Limits of International Law: Remarks by an Idealist on the Realism of The Limits of International Law, 34 GA. J. INT'L & COMP. L. 253 (2006).
151. For a discussion of the range of perspectives expressed under the rubric of legal pluralism, see notes 45-53 and accompanying text.
152. Although the United States has not accepted the jurisdiction of the Inter-American Court of Human Rights, its OAS membership gives the Commission authority to hear claims against it. See Statute of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights arts. 2-3, Oct. 31, 1979, O.A.S. G.A. Res. 447 (IX-0/79), available at http://www.iachr.org/Basicos/basicl5.htm; Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, What Is the IACHR?, http://www.iachr.org/what.htm (last visited Mar. 22, 2007).
153. Inuit Petition, supra note 20, at 75-95; American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man, O.A.S. Res. XXX, adopted by the Ninth International Conference of American States (1948), available at http://www.cidh.org/Basicos/basic2.htm.
154. Letter from Ariel E. Dulitzky, Assistant Executive Secretary, Org. of Am. States, to Paul Crowley, Legal Representative for Sheila Watt-Cloutier, et al. (Nov. 16, 2006) (regarding Petition No. P-1413-05), available at http://graphics8.nytimes.com/packages/pdf/science/16commissionletter.pdf.
155. Letter from Sheila Watt-Cloutier, Martin Wagner, and Daniel Magraw to Santiago Cantón, Executive Secretary, Inter-Am. Comm'n on Human Rights (Jan. 15, 2007) (on file with author).
156. See Letter from the Org. of Am. States to Sheila Watt-Cloutieret al. (Feb. 1, 2007) (on file with author) (regarding Petition No. P-1413-05).
157. UNESCO Website, World Heritage in Danger, http://whc.unesco.org/en/158/ (last visited Mar. 23, 2007).
158. Id.
159. See Petition to the World Heritage Committee Requesting Inclusion of the Belize Barrier Reef Reserve System in the List of World Heritage in Danger as a Result of Climate Change and for Protective Measures & Actions (Nov. 15, 2004) [hereinafter Belize Petition], available at http://www.climatelaw.org/media/UNESCO.petitions.release/belize.barrier.reef. doc; Petition to the World Heritage Committee Requesting the Inclusion of the Huascaran National Park in the List of World Heritage in Danger as a Result of Climate Change (Nov. 17, 2004) [hereinafter Peru Petition], available at http://www.climatelaw.org/media/UNESCO.petitions.release/peru.huascaran. national.park.doc; Petition to the World Heritage Committee Requesting Inclusion of Sagarmatha National Park in the List of World Heritage in Danger as a Result of Climate Change and for Protective Measure and Actions (Nov. 15, 2004) [hereinafter Nepal Petition], available at http://www.climatelaw.org/ media/UNESCO .petitions.release/nepal.sagarmatha.national.park.doc; Petition to the World Heritage Committee Requesting Inclusion of Waterton-Glacier International Peace Park on the List of World Heritage in Danger as a Result of Climate Change and for Protective Measures and Actions (Feb. 16, 2006) [hereinafter United States/Canada Petition], available at http://law.lclark.edu/org/ielp/objects/Waterton-GlacierPetition2.15.06.pdf; see also Erica J. Thorson, The World Heritage Convention and Climate Change: The Case for a Climate-Change Mitigation Strategy Beyond the Kyoto Protocol, in ADJUDICATING CLIMATE CHANGE: SUB-NATIONAL, NATIONAL, AND SUPRA-NATIONAL APPROACHES (William C.G. Burns & Hari M. Osofsky, eds.) (forthcoming 2007, Cambridge University Press).
160. Sydney Centre for International and Global Law, Global Climate Change and the Great Barrier Reef: Australia's Obligations under the World Heritage Convention (Sept. 21, 2004), available at http://www.law.usyd.edu.au/ scigl/SCIGLFinalReport21_09_04.pdf.
161. U.N. Educ., Scientific & Cultural Org. World Heritage Comm., Decisions of the 29th Session of the World Heritage Committee (Durban 2005), Decision 29COM7B.a (Sept. 9, 2005), available at http://whc.unesco.org/ archive/2005/whc05-29com-22e.pdf [hereinafter Convening of Experts].
162. World Heritage Committee Adopts Strategy on Heritage and Climate Change, UNESCO, July 10, 2006, http://whc.unesco.org/en/news/262.
163. I have provided an in-depth analysis of the geography of these and other petitions elsewhere. See Osofsky, The Geography of Climate Change Litigation, supra note 1; Osofsky, The Inuit Petition as a Bridge?,
164. World Heritage in Danger List, http://whc.unesco.org/en/danger/ (last visited Mar. 23, 2007).
165. Nepal Petition, supra note 116, at 37-41.
166. Inuit Petition, supra note 20.
167. For examples of the jurisprudence of the Inter-American Commission and Court on environmental rights, see Case No. 7615, Inter-Am. C.H.R., Report No. 12/85, OAS/Ser.L/V/II.66, doc. 10 rev 1 (1985) (Yanomami case); Dann v. United States, Case No. 11.140, Inter-Am. C.H.R., Report No. 75/02 (2001); The Mayagna (Sumo) Awas Tingni Cmty. v. Nicaragua, Case No. 79, Inter-Am. C.H.R., Ser. C (2001).
168. See Inuit Petition, supra note 20.
169. See id.
170. For a more detailed discussion of the characterization problems that arise in the context of environmental rights cases, see Hari M. Osofsky, Learning from Environmental Justice: A New Model for International Environmental Rights, 24 STAN. ENVTL. L.J. 71, 77-87 (2005).
171. Similarly, in presentations Martin Wagner of Earthjustice often frames the question as a right to be cold. See, e.g., Martin Wagner, Presentation at Spring 2007 Stanford Environmental Journal and Stanford Journal of International Law Symposium: Climate Change Liability and the Allocation of Risk (Feb. 24, 2007).
172. See, e.g., State v. Pottmeyer, 33 Ind. 402 (1870) (holding that owner of land to which riparian ice has attached owns it and can prevent its removal); Washington Ice Co. v. Shortall, 101 Ill. 46 (1881) (reaching the same result); Bigelow v. Shaw, 65 Mich. 341 (1887) (reaching the same result).
173. A search of the database Oceana Law using the terms ice, snow, glacier, and permafrost on June 7, 2006, produced 175 results, 24 of which referred to ice cream or flavored ice and snow. The results that actually had to do with glaciers, snowpacks, permafrost, and other relevant forms of ice and snow included 55 agreements, which predominantly focused on Antarctica, boundaries, and landmarks. None of the agreements engaged a right to frozen water directly. A second search of the United Nations Treaty Database for the same terms produced 37 results. These results were redundant with those found on the Oceana Database. For an example of governance issues resulting from a glacier that straddles a tense national border, see Neal A. Kemkar, Note, Environmental Peacemaking: Ending the Conflict Between India and Pakistan on the Siachen Glacier Through the Creation of a Transboundary Peace Park, 25 STAN. ENVTL. L.J. 67 (2006) (analyzing the conflict over the Siachen Glacier).
174. See UNFCC, supra note 84, at Preamble, arts. 3, 22; Kyoto Protocol, supra note 92, at arts. 22, 24; see also GRUBB, supra note 92.
175. The recent legal scholarship on regimes governing frozen water in a transnational context does not have melting due to climate change as a focus. Beyond the articles and books on regimes governing Antarctica and the Arctic, there are a limited number of pieces discussing governance of ice and ice covered regions. See, e.g., Christopher C. Joyner, Ice-Covered Regions in International Law, 31 NAT. RESOURCES J. 213 (1991);
176. Bryan S. Geon, Note, A Right to Ice?: The Application of International and National Water Laws to the Acquisition of Iceberg Rights, 19 MICH. J. INT'L L. 277 (1997).
177. For an analysis of the impact of global warming on glaciers, see Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Climate Change 2001: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability § 4.3.11, available at http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg2/index.htm. Climate change is not the only threat to glaciers in our globalizing economy. For example, controversy has arisen over a plan by Barrick Gold Corporation of Canada, the largest gold mining company in the world, to break up glaciers in Pascua Lama, Chile in order to reach gold underneath. See Eduard Gallardo, Chileans Raise an Outcry over Subglacial Goldmining, PHILA. INQUIRER, Mar. 5, 2006, at A08.
178. See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, supra note 122.
179. See Osofsky, Learning from Environmental Justice, supra note 127, at 121.
180. See World Heritage in Danger, http://whc.unesco.org/pg.cfm?cid= 158.
181. See Case No. 7615, Inter-Am. C.H.R., Report No. 12/85, OAS/Ser.L/V/II.66, doc. 10 rev 1 (1985) (Yanomami case); Dann v. United States, Case No. 11.140, Inter-Am. C.H.R., Report No. 75/02 (2001) The Mayagna (Sumo) Awas Tingni Cmty. v. Nicaragua, Case No. 79, Inter-Am. C.H.R., Ser. C (2001).
182. Convening of Experts, supra note 118.
183. The Petition's request for relief asks for measures on both of these fronts. See Inuit Petition, supra note 20.
184. See Dann v. United States, Case No. 11.140, Inter-Am. C.H.R., Report No. 75/02 (2001); Response Of The Government Of The United States To October 10, 2002 Report No. 53/02 Case No. 11.140 (Mary And Carrie Dann), available at http://www.cidh.org/Respuestas/USA.11140.htm.
185. See Jonathan Graubart, "Politicizing" a New Breed of "Legalized" Transnational Political Opportunity Structures: Labor Activists Uses of NAFTA's Citizen-Petition Mechanism, 26 BERKELEY J. EMP. & LAB. L. 97 (2005) (analyzing the petition as part of the process of creating pressure).
186. But see Laurence R. Helfer, Overlegalizing Human Rights: International Relations Theory and the Commonwealth Caribbean Backlash Against Human Rights Regimes, 102 COLUM. L. REV. 1832 (2002) (exploring the dangers of focusing too much on formal law in the human rights regime). More broadly, scholars at the intersection of international law and other disciplines, such as international relations and sociology, are engaging questions of why and how international law regimes matter.
187. See, e.g., supra notes 106-108; Andrew T. Guzman, A Compliance-Based Theory of International Law, 90 CAL. L. REV. 1823 (2002) (considering a compliance-based theory of international law);
188. Ryan Goodman & Derek Jinks, How to Influence States: Socialization and International Human Rights Law, 54 DUKE L.J. 621 (2004) (arguing that a proper understanding of "the social mechanisms of law's influence" is necessary to "best harness these forces" that cause state socialization in the context of International Human Rights Law);
189. Ryan Goodman & Derek Jinks, International Law and State Socialization: Conceptual, Empirical, and Normative Challenges, 54 DUKE L.J. 983 (2005) (defending the prior argument);
190. Oona A. Hathaway, Between Power and Principle: An Integrated Theory of International Law, 72 CHI. L. REV. 469 (2005) (arguing that the interplay between international law and international relations ultimately results in state compliance). An indepth comparison of these theories is beyond the scope of this paper.
191. Convening of Experts, supra note 107.
192. Nepal Petition, supra note 116.
193. Inuit Petition, supra note 20.
194. See S. JAMES ANAYA, INDIGENOUS PEOPLES IN INTERNATIONAL LAW 141-48 (2d ed. 2004).
195. Inuit Petition, supra note 20.
196. As Sheila Watt-Cloutier said in her statement on the petition: What is happening affects virtually every facet of Inuit life-we are a people of the land, ice, snow, and animals. Our hunting culture thrives on the cold. We need it to be cold to maintain our culture and way of life. Climate change has become the ultimate threat to Inuit culture. How would you respond if an international assessment prepared by more than 300 scientists from 15 countries concluded that your age-old culture and economy was doomed, and that you were to become a footnote to globalization? See Presentation by Sheila Watt-Cloutier, supra note 21.
197. NICHOLAS K. BLOMLEY, LAW, SPACE, AND THE GEOGRAPHIES OF POWER 189-222 (1994).
198. ARCTIC CLIMATE IMPACT ASSESSMENT 16-17 (2005) [hereinafter ACIA], available at http://www.acia.uaf.edu/ pages/scientific.html;
199. see also U.S. ARCTIC RESEARCH COMMISSION, PERMAFROST TASK FORCE REPORT, CLIMATE CHANGE, PERMAFROST, AND IMPACTS ON CIVIL INFRASTRUCTURE 1 (2003) [hereinafter Permafrost Task Force Report], available at http://www.arctic.gov/files/ PermafrostForWeb.pdf.
200. The significance of those relationships is debated in the globalization literature. See Held & McGrew, supra note 27.
201. See Inuit Circumpolar Conference, http://www.inuitcircumpolar.com/ index.php?ID=16&Lang=En.
202. See Osofsky, The Geography of Climate Change Litigation, supra note 1.
203. For an exploration of the important role of narrative in thinking about legal problems, see Richard Delgado, Storytelling for Oppositionists and Others: A Plea for Narrative, 87 MICH. L. REV. 2411 (1989);
204. Stephanie Weinstein & Arthur Wolfson, Toward a Due Process of Narrative: Before You Lock My Love Away, Please Let Me Testify, 11 ROGER WILLIAMS U. L. REV. 511 (2006);
205. Matthew L.M. Fletcher, Note, Listen, 3 MICH. J. RACE & L. 523 (1998).
206. BROWNLIE, supra note 8, at 280-90. For an analysis of the complexities of state sovereignty and of the dynamics between domestic and the international legal systems, see THE FLUID STATE: INTERNATIONAL LAW AND NATIONAL LEGAL SYSTEMS (Hilary Charlesworth et al. eds., 2005);
207. Becky Mansfield, Beyond Rescaling: Reintegrating 'National' as a Dimension of Scalar Relations, 29 PROGRESS IN HUMAN GEOGRAPHY 458 (2005);
208. Alexander B. Murphy, The Sovereign State System as Political-Territorial Ideal: Historical and Contemporary Considerations, in STATE SOVEREIGNTY AS SOCIAL CONTRACT (1996). [Brownlie no longer in library, Fluid State, Mansfield, Murphy not available]
209. For an analysis of problems of overlapping environmental regulatory jurisdiction, see William W. Buzbee, Recognizing the Regulatory Commons: A Theory of Regulatory Gaps, 89 IOWA L. REV. 1 (2003).
210. For analyses that consider this cultural entwinement, see Linda McDowell, The Transformation of Cultural Geography, in HUMAN GEOGRAPHY: SOCIETY, SPACE, AND SOCIAL SCIENCES 146-73 (Derek Gregory, Ron Martin, and Graham Smith eds., 1994);
211. Madhavi Sunder, Piercing the Veil, 112 YALE L.J. 1399 (2003).
212. See Inuit Petition, supra note 20.
213. For a discussion of some of the ways in which indigenous peoples face external pressures to freeze their cultures and lifestyles in time, see Randeria, supra note 17, at 311.
214. See Nepal Petition, supra note 116.
215. See Leti Volpp, The Citizen and the Terrorist, 49 UCLA L. REV. 1575 (2002).
216. See supra Section IV.B.2.
217. See supra Section U.C.
218. Presentation by Sheila Watt-Cloutier, supra note 21.
219. The literature from many other disciplines that engages the concept of scale is beyond the scope of this Article. I plan to engage this literature, and its relationship to law and geography, more thoroughly in a monograph I am developing, which is tentatively entitled Scales of Law. For an example of a piece from the sociology literature that engages issues of scale, see George Ritzer, Rethinking Globalization: Glocalization/Grobalization and Something/Nothing, 21 SOCIOLOGICAL THEORY 193 (2003).
220. NEIL BRENNER, NEW STATE SPACES: URBAN GOVERNANCE AND THE RESCALING OF STATEHOOD 9 (2004) (internal quotations omitted);
221. see also Neil Brenner, The Limits to Scale? Methodological Reflections on Scalar Structuration, 25 PROGRESS IN HUMAN GEOGRAPHY 591 (2001);
222. Sallie A. Marston, The Social Construction of Scale, 24 PROGRESS IN HUMAN GEOGRAPHY 219 (2000);
223. Sallie A. Marston & Neil Smith, States, Scales and Households: Limits to Scale Thinking? A Response to Brenner, 25 PROGRESS IN HUMAN GEOGRAPHY 615 (2001);
224. Michael Mason, Transnational Environmental Obligations: Locating New Spaces of Accountability in a Post-Westphalian Global Order, 26 TRANSACTIONS OF THE INSTITUTE OF BRITISH GEOGRAPHERS 407 (2001).
225. Nathan F. Sayre, Ecological and Geographical Scale: Parallels and Potential for Integration, 29 PROGRESS IN HUMAN GEOGRAPHY 276, 281 (2005).
226. See supra notes 8 & 50 and accompanying text.
227. In a work-in-progress that is a companion piece to The Geography of Climate Change Litigation: Implications for Transnational Regulatory Governance, see supra note I, I provide a law and geography taxonomy of international legal theory that groups much of international legal theory in the modified Westphalian category because of its combination of nation-state-centeredness and willingness to look inside the nation-state.
228. See Osofsky, The Geography of Climate Change Litigation Part II, supra note 1.
229. See Osofsky, The Geography of Climate Change Litigation, supra note 1.
230. See Koh, Transnational Legal Process, supra note 106 and accompanying text;
231. Koh, Jefferson Memorial Lecture, supra note 106 and accompanying text.
232. See Osofsky, The Geography of Climate Change Litigation, supra note 1;
233. Osofsky, The Geography of Climate Change Litigation Part II, supra note 1.
234. Law and geography approaches draw from the rich geographic literature on scale to provide a deeper analysis of these issues. David Delaney, Richard Ford, and Nicholas Blomley-three of the key scholars in merging geography and law-together have described the intersection in this way: "Our legal lives are constituted by shifting intersections of different and not necessarily coherendy articulating legal orders associated with different scalar spaces. The relations between these different legal spaces is a dynamic and complex one, but it is a pressing and important subject of inquiry given the ways in which codes operative at various scales intermingle." David Delaney, Richard T. Ford & Nicholas Blomley, Preface to THE LEGAL GEOGRAPHIES READER, at xxi (Nicholas Blomley, David Delaney & Richard T. Ford eds., 2001).
235. See supra Section II.C.
236. For examples of recent scholarship that engages international law from a critical perspective, see BALAKRISHNAN RAJAGOPAL, INTERNATIONAL LAW FROM BELOW: DEVELOPMENT, SOCIAL MOVEMENTS AND THIRD WORLD RESISTANCE (2003);
237. Symposium, Critical Race Theory and International Law: Convergence and Divergence, 45 VILL. L. REV. 827 (2000);
238. David Kennedy, When Renewal Repeats: Thinking Against the Box, 32 N.Y.U.J. INT'L L. & POL. 335, 476-500 (2000);
239. Obiora Chinedu Okafor, Newness, Imperialism, and International Legal Reform in Our Time: A Twail Perspective, 43 OSGOODE HALL L.J. 171 (2005).
240. See supra note 37 and accompanying text.
241. See Burke-White, supra note 53, at 969-70, 973.
242. See SLAUGHTER, supra note 37, at 18.
243. For the transgovernmentalist approach, see sources cited supra note 37;
244. see also Kal Raustiala, The Architecture of International Cooperation: Transgovernmental Networks and the Future of International Law, 43 VA. J. INT'L L. 1 (2002);
245. Anne-Marie Slaughter, Global Government Networks, Global Information Agencies, and Disaggregated Democracy, 24 MICH. J. INT'L L. 1041 (2003). Slaughter's work arguably lies somewhere between a state-centric and pluralist model.
246. See infra notes 175-177 and accompanying text. Although further exploration of how each of these approaches fits into a broader law and geography taxonomy of international law is beyond the scope of this article, I provide such a schema in another article.
247. See Osofsky, The Geography of Climate Change Litigation Part II, supra note 1.
248. See supra notes 8 & 50 and accompanying text. For an analysis of jus cogens norms, see THE FUNDAMENTAL RULES OF THE INTERNATIONAL LEGAL ORDER: JUS COGENS AND OBLIGATIONS ERGA OMNES (Christian Tomuschat & Jean-Marc Thouvenin eds., 2006).
249. This model is encapsulated in Article 38 of the Statute of the International Court of Justice, June 26, 1945, 59 Stat. 1055.
250. A recent iteration of that debate occurred in the furor over The Limits of International Law. See supra note 107.
251. The role of soft law in international lawmaking has arisen in a wide range of contexts. See, e.g., Daniel E. Ho, Compliance and International Soft Law: Why Do Countries Implement the Basle Accord?, 5 J. INT'L ECON. L. 647 (2002) (considering the context of banking regulation);
252. Lars Meyer, Soft Law for Solid Contracts? A Comparative Analysis of the Value of the UNIDROIT Principles of International Commercial Contracts and the Principles of European Contract Law to the Process of Contract Law Harmonization, 34 DENV. J. INT'L L. & POL'Y 119 (2006) (considering the context of contracts);
253. Richard L. Williamson, Jr., Hard Law, Soft Law, and Non-Law in Multilateral Arms Control: Some Compliance Hypotheses, 4 CHI. J. INT'L L, 59 (2003) (considering the context of arms control).
254. See Levit, A Bottom-Up Approach to International Law-Making, supra note 53.
255. See supra note 109 and accompanying text.
256. Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage arts. 8-14, Nov. 16, 1972, 15 U.N.T.S. 511, available at http://whc.unesco.org/en/conventiontext/.
257. See supra note 140 and accompanying text.
258. For a discussion of the Inuit Petition as dialogue, see supra notes 25 & 44 and accompanying text.
259. For an analysis of the scales and normative communities at issue in these petitions, see supra Section IV.C.
260. See supra note 106 and accompanying text.
261. For the pluralist perspective, see supra Section II.C.
262. See supra note 107 and accompanying text.
263. For example, a great deal of the discussion about this piece and in the broader legal pluralism session at the 2007 Junior International Law Scholars Roundtable at Yale University focused on whether pluralist projects should aim primarily at fuller description or should attempt a normative step.
264. This Article focuses on applying the pluralist analysis to climate change litigation, and so does not attempt to define what other types of lawmaking behavior should "count" in the overall model of international lawmaking. Such an inquiry is beyond the scope of this paper.
265. See supra notes 18-19.
266. See supra Part III.
267. See Osofsky, The Geography of Climate Change Litigation, supra note 1;
268. see also Osofsky, The Geography of Climate Change Litigation Part II, supra note 1.
269. See supra Section II.C.
270. For example, the U.S. is not party to the Kyoto Protocol, see President George W. Bush, supra note 92, and other countries are struggling to meet their targets under it. See, e.g., RUSSIA AND THE KYOTO PROTOCOL: OPPORTUNITIES AND CHALLENGES (Anna Korppoo, Jacqueline Karas & Michael Grubb, eds., 2006);
271. Canada's 2006 Report of the Commissioner of the Environment and Sustainable Development, available at http://www.oag-bvg.gc.ca/domino/ reports.nsf/html/c2006menu_e.html (noting that Canada is failing to meet its obligations under the Kyoto Protocol).
272. See Janet Koven Levit, International Law Happens (Whether the Executive Likes it Or Not), http://islandia.law.yale.edu/sela/SELA2006/ papers/Janet%20Koven%20Levit. %20_English_.pdf. For an example of how a pluralist approach can be used to attack assumptions about formal international law,
273. see Paul Schiff Berman, Review Essay: 'Seeing Beyond the Limits of International Law, ' Jack L. Goldsmith and Eric A. Posner, The Limits of International Law', 84 TEXAS L. REV. 1265 (2006). For additional discussion of how climate change litigation fits into a broader regulatory effort,
274. see David Hunter, The Implications of Climate Advocacy for International Environmental Law-Making, in ADJUDICATING CLIMATE CHANGE: SUB-NATIONAL, NATIONAL, AND SUPRA-NATIONAL APPROACHES (William C.G. Burns & Hari M. Osofsky, eds.) (forthcoming 2007, Cambridge University Press).
275. See Intergovernmental Panel On Climate Change, Working Group II Contribution to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report, Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability, Summary for Policymakers, Apr. 13, 2007, http://www.ipcc.ch/SPM13apr07.pdf.