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Volumn 5, Issue 4, 2007, Pages 953-975

Individual criminal responsibility in article 25 ICC statute

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EID: 35248826545     PISSN: 14781387     EISSN: 14781395     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/jicj/mqm059     Document Type: Conference Paper
Times cited : (83)

References (160)
  • 1
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    • Judgment, Tadić (IT-94-1-A), Appeals Chamber, 15 July 1999, § 191 (hereinafter: 'Tadić' Appeals Judgment').
    • Judgment, Tadić (IT-94-1-A), Appeals Chamber, 15 July 1999, § 191 (hereinafter: 'Tadić' Appeals Judgment').
  • 3
  • 4
    • 35248856450 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A. Eser, 'Individual Criminal Responsibility', in A. Cassese, P. Gaeta and J.R.W.D. Jones (eds), The Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court: A Commentary 1 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002) 767-822, at 784 et seq.
    • A. Eser, 'Individual Criminal Responsibility', in A. Cassese, P. Gaeta and J.R.W.D. Jones (eds), The Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court: A Commentary Vol. 1 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002) 767-822, at 784 et seq.
  • 5
    • 35248893371 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • 6(a) Nuremberg Charter; see also Art
    • Charter
    • Art. 6(a) Nuremberg Charter; see also Art. 5(a) Tokyo Charter.
    • 5(a) Tokyo
    • Art1
  • 7
    • 35248814830 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Nuremberg Principle VII
    • Nuremberg Principle VII.
  • 9
    • 35248837418 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • G. Werle, Principles of International Criminal Law (The Hague: TMC Asser Press, 2005), marginal nos 339 et seq.
    • G. Werle, Principles of International Criminal Law (The Hague: TMC Asser Press, 2005), marginal nos 339 et seq.
  • 11
  • 12
    • 35248876196 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Judgment, Vasiljević (IT-98-32-A), Appeals Chamber, 25 February 2004, §182 (hereinafter: 'Vasiljević Appeals Judgment');
    • Judgment, Vasiljević (IT-98-32-A), Appeals Chamber, 25 February 2004, §182 (hereinafter: 'Vasiljević Appeals Judgment');
  • 13
    • 35248815559 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Judgment, Krstić (IT-98-33-A), Appeals Chamber, 19 April 2004, §268 (hereinafter: 'Krstić Appeals Judgment').
    • Judgment, Krstić (IT-98-33-A), Appeals Chamber, 19 April 2004, §268 (hereinafter: 'Krstić Appeals Judgment').
  • 14
    • 35248864396 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Judgment, Semanza (ICTR-97-20-A), Appeals Chamber, 20 May 2005, §§ 355 et seq., 364 (hereinafter: 'Semanza Appeals Judgement').
    • Judgment, Semanza (ICTR-97-20-A), Appeals Chamber, 20 May 2005, §§ 355 et seq., 364 (hereinafter: 'Semanza Appeals Judgement').
  • 16
    • 35248830742 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Eser, supra note 2, at 789
    • See Eser, supra note 2, at 789.
  • 17
    • 35248885208 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See also Tadić Appeals Judgment, supra note 1, §188
    • See also Tadić Appeals Judgment, supra note 1, §188
  • 18
    • 35248871587 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Judgment, Kvočka et al. (IT-98-30/1-T), Trial Chamber, 2 November 2001, §243 (hereinafter 'Kvočka Trial Judgment').
    • Judgment, Kvočka et al. (IT-98-30/1-T), Trial Chamber, 2 November 2001, §243 (hereinafter 'Kvočka Trial Judgment').
  • 20
    • 35248865311 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See also Judgment, Vasiljević (IT-98-32-T), Trial Chamber, 29 November 2002, §§63 et seq. (hereinafter: 'Vasiljević Trial Judgment');
    • See also Judgment, Vasiljević (IT-98-32-T), Trial Chamber, 29 November 2002, §§63 et seq. (hereinafter: 'Vasiljević Trial Judgment');
  • 21
    • 35248887565 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Kvočka Trial Judgment, supra note 11, §§265 et seq., 312.
    • Kvočka Trial Judgment, supra note 11, §§265 et seq., 312.
  • 22
    • 35248837417 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See e.g. Judgment, Simba (ICTR-01-76-T), Trial Chamber, 13 December 2005, §§ 385 et seq.
    • See e.g. Judgment, Simba (ICTR-01-76-T), Trial Chamber, 13 December 2005, §§ 385 et seq.
  • 23
    • 35248862994 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The doctrine of the joint criminal enterprise can be traced to the ICTY Appeals Chamber judgment of the defendant Tadić, see Tadić Appeals Judgment, supra note 1, §§188 et seq.
    • The doctrine of the joint criminal enterprise can be traced to the ICTY Appeals Chamber judgment of the defendant Tadić, see Tadić Appeals Judgment, supra note 1, §§188 et seq.
  • 24
    • 35248841985 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See ibid., §227
    • See ibid., §227
  • 25
    • 35248841522 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Judgment, Krnojelac (IT-97-25-A), Appeals Chamber, 17 September 2003, §31 (hereinafter: 'Krnojelac Appeals Judgment');
    • Judgment, Krnojelac (IT-97-25-A), Appeals Chamber, 17 September 2003, §31 (hereinafter: 'Krnojelac Appeals Judgment');
  • 26
    • 35248863457 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Vasiljević Appeals Judgment, supra note 9, 1§00
    • Vasiljević Appeals Judgment, supra note 9, 1§00
  • 27
    • 35248833066 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Judgment, Kvočka et al. (IT-98-30/1-A), Appeals Chamber, 28 February 2005, 8§1 (hereinafter: 'Kvočka Appeals Judgment').
    • Judgment, Kvočka et al. (IT-98-30/1-A), Appeals Chamber, 28 February 2005, 8§1 (hereinafter: 'Kvočka Appeals Judgment').
  • 28
    • 35248884400 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Tadić Appeals Judgment, supra note 1, §227.
    • Tadić Appeals Judgment, supra note 1, §227.
  • 29
    • 35248860216 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Vasiljević Trial Judgment, supra note 12, 6§7
    • See Vasiljević Trial Judgment, supra note 12, 6§7.
  • 30
    • 35248828596 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • As recently expressly stated in Kvočka Appeals Judgment, supra note 15, §§97, 104, 187.
    • As recently expressly stated in Kvočka Appeals Judgment, supra note 15, §§97, 104, 187.
  • 31
    • 35248832155 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Tadič Appeals Judgment, supra note 1, 1§95.
    • Tadič Appeals Judgment, supra note 1, 1§95.
  • 32
    • 35248854371 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Ibid., 2§27
    • Ibid., 2§27
  • 33
    • 35248885673 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Krnojelac Appeals Judgment, supra note 15, 3§1.
    • Krnojelac Appeals Judgment, supra note 15, 3§1.
  • 34
    • 35248878078 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Tadić Appeals Judgment, supra note 1, 1§95.
    • Tadić Appeals Judgment, supra note 1, 1§95.
  • 35
    • 35248860738 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Ibid., §§ 202, 220. For details on the second category (concentration camp cases'), see also Kvočka Trial Judgment, supra note 11, §§268 et seq.
    • Ibid., §§ 202, 220. For details on the second category (concentration camp cases'), see also Kvočka Trial Judgment, supra note 11, §§268 et seq.
  • 36
    • 35248851526 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Tadić Appeals Judgment, supra note 1, 2§04
    • Tadić Appeals Judgment, supra note 1, 2§04
  • 37
    • 35248828118 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • VasiljevićAppeals Judgment, supra note 9, 9§9.
    • VasiljevićAppeals Judgment, supra note 9, 9§9.
  • 38
    • 35248886157 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • On the terminology used by the ICTR ('basic', 'systemic' and 'extended' form of joint criminal enterprise), see ibid., at §§ 97 et seq.
    • On the terminology used by the ICTR ('basic', 'systemic' and 'extended' form of joint criminal enterprise), see ibid., at §§ 97 et seq.
  • 39
    • 35248837906 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Tadić Appeals Judgment, supra note 1, 2§28
    • Tadić Appeals Judgment, supra note 1, 2§28
  • 40
    • 35248855970 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Krnojelac Appeals Judgment, supra note 15, 3§2
    • Krnojelac Appeals Judgment, supra note 15, 3§2
  • 41
    • 35248838333 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Vasiljević Appeals Judgment, supra note 9, 1§01
    • Vasiljević Appeals Judgment, supra note 9, 1§01
  • 42
    • 35248826471 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Kvoćka Appeals Judgment, supra note 15, 8§3
    • Kvoćka Appeals Judgment, supra note 15, 8§3
  • 43
    • 35248821784 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Judgment, E. and G. Ntakirutimana (ICTR-96-10-A/ICTR-96-17-A), Appeals Chamber, 13 December 2004, 4§67.
    • Judgment, E. and G. Ntakirutimana (ICTR-96-10-A/ICTR-96-17-A), Appeals Chamber, 13 December 2004, 4§67.
  • 44
    • 35248830741 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Decision, Brdanin (IT-99-36-A), Appeals Chamber, 19 March 2004, §§ 5 et seq.;
    • Decision, Brdanin (IT-99-36-A), Appeals Chamber, 19 March 2004, §§ 5 et seq.;
  • 45
    • 35248826963 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Decision, Rwamakuba (ICTR-98-44-AR72.4), Appeals Chamber, 22 October 2004, 6§.
    • Decision, Rwamakuba (ICTR-98-44-AR72.4), Appeals Chamber, 22 October 2004, 6§.
  • 46
    • 35248813387 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Judgment, Stakić (IT-97-24-A), Appeals Chamber, 22 March 2006, §§ 58 et seq. This judgment rejects opinions expressed in other decisions that criticized the concept of joint criminal enterprise as applied by the Tribunal.
    • See Judgment, Stakić (IT-97-24-A), Appeals Chamber, 22 March 2006, §§ 58 et seq. This judgment rejects opinions expressed in other decisions that criticized the concept of joint criminal enterprise as applied by the Tribunal.
  • 47
    • 35248899449 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See e.g. Judgment, Stakić (IT-97-24-T), Trial Chamber, 31 July 2003, §§433 et seq.;
    • See e.g. Judgment, Stakić (IT-97-24-T), Trial Chamber, 31 July 2003, §§433 et seq.;
  • 48
    • 35248824618 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Judgment, Gacumbitsi (ICTR-2001-64-A), Appeals Chamber, 7 July 2006, Separate Opinion of Judge Schomburg, §§14 et seq.
    • Judgment, Gacumbitsi (ICTR-2001-64-A), Appeals Chamber, 7 July 2006, Separate Opinion of Judge Schomburg, §§14 et seq.
  • 49
    • 79251517986 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Development of the Concept of Joint Criminal Enterprise at the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia', 5
    • See also, at
    • See also VHaan,'The Development of the Concept of Joint Criminal Enterprise at the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia', 5 International Criminal Law Review (2005) 167-201, at 176.
    • (2005) International Criminal Law Review , vol.167-201 , pp. 176
    • VHaan1
  • 50
    • 35248883456 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See K. Ambos, Internationales Strafrecht (München: C.H. Beck, 2006), at 136 et seq.;
    • See K. Ambos, Internationales Strafrecht (München: C.H. Beck, 2006), at 136 et seq.;
  • 51
    • 68049086088 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Individual Criminal Responsibility in the Execution of a Joint Criminal Enterprise
    • Jurisprudence of the Ad Hoc International Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, 63-120, at et seq
    • A. Bogdan, 'Individual Criminal Responsibility in the Execution of a "Joint Criminal Enterprise" in the Jurisprudence of the Ad Hoc International Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, 6 International Criminal Law Review (2006) 63-120, at 109 et seq.;
    • (2006) International Criminal Law Review , vol.6 , pp. 109
    • Bogdan, A.1
  • 52
    • 35248816009 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • S. Powles, 'Joint Criminal Enterprise: Criminal Liability by Prosecutorial Ingenuity and Judicial Creativity?', 2 Journal of International Criminal Justice (2004) 606-619, at 615 et seq.
    • S. Powles, 'Joint Criminal Enterprise: Criminal Liability by Prosecutorial Ingenuity and Judicial Creativity?', 2 Journal of International Criminal Justice (2004) 606-619, at 615 et seq.
  • 53
    • 78650523302 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • M.E. Badar, 'Just Convict Everyone!. Joint Preparation: From Tadić to Stakić and Back Again', 6 International Criminal Law Review (2006) 293-302, at 301 et seq.;
    • M.E. Badar, '"Just Convict Everyone!". Joint Preparation: From Tadić to Stakić and Back Again', 6 International Criminal Law Review (2006) 293-302, at 301 et seq.;
  • 55
    • 84920450317 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • G. Mettraux, International Crimes and the ad hoc Tribunals (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), 292 et seq.;
    • G. Mettraux, International Crimes and the ad hoc Tribunals (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), 292 et seq.;
  • 56
    • 35248841520 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Powles, supra note 27, at 611
    • Powles, supra note 27, at 611.
  • 57
    • 35248819697 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • That was also the position of the Prosecutor's Office in Lubanqa: '[L]'Accusation soutient qu'il importe de prendre en considération les différences fondamentales existant entre les tribunaux ad hoc et la Cour, cette dernière étant régie par un Statut qui non seulement expose très en détail les formes de résponsabilité pénale, mais s'écarte délibérément à cet égard des définitions plus générales figurant, par exemple, à l'article 7-1 du Statut du TPIY.', ICC, Decision, Lubanga (ICC-01/04-01/06), Pre-Trial Chamber, 29 January 2007, §323.
    • That was also the position of the Prosecutor's Office in Lubanqa: '[L]'Accusation soutient qu'il importe de prendre en considération les différences fondamentales existant entre les tribunaux ad hoc et la Cour, cette dernière étant régie par un Statut qui non seulement expose très en détail les formes de résponsabilité pénale, mais s'écarte délibérément à cet égard des définitions plus générales figurant, par exemple, à l'article 7-1 du Statut du TPIY.', ICC, Decision, Lubanga (ICC-01/04-01/06), Pre-Trial Chamber, 29 January 2007, §323.
  • 58
    • 35248843138 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Pre-Trial Chamber followed this approach, ibid., at §§ 326 et seq.
    • The Pre-Trial Chamber followed this approach, ibid., at §§ 326 et seq.
  • 59
    • 35248816458 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Ibid., at §§ 330 et seq.
    • Ibid., at §§ 330 et seq.
  • 61
    • 27244443808 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Unless Otherwise Provided. Article 30 of the ICC Statute and the Mental Element of Crimes under International Criminal Law, 3
    • G. Werle and F. Jessberger, '"Unless Otherwise Provided". Article 30 of the ICC Statute and the Mental Element of Crimes under International Criminal Law, 3 Journal of International Criminal Justice (2005) 35-55.
    • (2005) Journal of International Criminal Justice , pp. 35-55
    • Werle, G.1    Jessberger, F.2
  • 62
    • 35248878550 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ICC, Decision, Lubanga, supra note 29
    • ICC, Decision, Lubanga, supra note 29.
  • 63
    • 35248856958 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • This has now been affirmed by the ICC Pre-Trial Chamber, ibid, at §349
    • This has now been affirmed by the ICC Pre-Trial Chamber, ibid., at §349.
  • 64
    • 35248872513 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Similarly Ambos, supra note 27, at 138
    • Similarly Ambos, supra note 27, at 138.
  • 65
    • 35248839557 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See also Eser, supra note 2, at 793
    • See also Eser, supra note 2, at 793.
  • 66
    • 35248881083 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For instance §2.06(2) Model Penal Code states: 'A person is legally accountable for the conduct of another person when: (a) [...] he causes an innocent or irresponsible person to engage in such conduct [...]'. For details, see Ambos, supra note 2, at 568 et seq.;
    • For instance §2.06(2) Model Penal Code states: 'A person is legally accountable for the conduct of another person when: (a) [...] he causes an innocent or irresponsible person to engage in such conduct [...]'. For details, see Ambos, supra note 2, at 568 et seq.;
  • 67
    • 0004273012 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Oxford: Oxford University Press, at
    • G. Fletcher, Rethinking Criminal Law (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), at 639.
    • (2000) Rethinking Criminal Law , pp. 639
    • Fletcher, G.1
  • 69
    • 35248848321 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Individuelle Verantwortlichkeit im Völkerstrafrecht', 114
    • at
    • J.Vogel, 'Individuelle Verantwortlichkeit im Völkerstrafrecht', 114 Zeitschrift für die gesamte Strafrechtswissenschaft (2002) 403-436, at 427.
    • (2002) Zeitschrift für die gesamte Strafrechtswissenschaft , vol.403-436 , pp. 427
    • Vogel, J.1
  • 70
    • 35248860214 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Thus, the doctrine of the 'perpetrator behind the perpetrator' has been affirmed for international criminal law. It was originally developed by C. Roxin ('Straftaten im Rahmen organisatorischer Machtapparate', Goltdammer's Archiv für Strafrecht (1963), 193-207) in connection with the Eichmann trial - that is, in an international criminal law context - and has since considerably influenced German criminal jurisprudence.
    • Thus, the doctrine of the 'perpetrator behind the perpetrator' has been affirmed for international criminal law. It was originally developed by C. Roxin ('Straftaten im Rahmen organisatorischer Machtapparate', Goltdammer's Archiv für Strafrecht (1963), 193-207) in connection with the Eichmann trial - that is, in an international criminal law context - and has since considerably influenced German criminal jurisprudence.
  • 71
    • 35248883003 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For a thorough discussion, see F.-C. Schroeder, Der Täter hinter dem Täter: Ein Beitrag zur Lehre von der mittelbaren Etersehaft (Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, 1965), at 119 et seq.
    • For a thorough discussion, see F.-C. Schroeder, Der Täter hinter dem Täter: Ein Beitrag zur Lehre von der mittelbaren Etersehaft (Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, 1965), at 119 et seq.
  • 72
    • 35248864863 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • German Federal Supreme Court, Judgment of 26 July 1994, BGHSt 40, 218 et seq., at 236
    • German Federal Supreme Court, Judgment of 26 July 1994, BGHSt 40, 218 et seq., at 236
  • 73
    • 35248889474 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • German Federal Supreme Court, Judgment of 4 March 1996, BGHSt 42, 65 et seq., at 68
    • German Federal Supreme Court, Judgment of 4 March 1996, BGHSt 42, 65 et seq., at 68
  • 74
    • 35248837415 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • German Federal Supreme Court, Judgment of 8 November 1999, BGHSt 45, 270 et seq., at 296.
    • German Federal Supreme Court, Judgment of 8 November 1999, BGHSt 45, 270 et seq., at 296.
  • 75
    • 27244457618 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • International Criminal Law Principles
    • For a thorough discussion, see, R.S. Lee ed, The Hague: Kluwer Law International, at
    • For a thorough discussion, see P. Saland, 'International Criminal Law Principles', in R.S. Lee (ed), The International Criminal Court, The Making of the Rome Statute (The Hague: Kluwer Law International, 1999) 189-216, at 212.
    • (1999) The International Criminal Court, The Making of the Rome Statute , vol.189-216 , pp. 212
    • Saland, P.1
  • 76
    • 27244458570 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • At the same time, however, it is also reported that the majority of the negotiating delegations apparently assumed that in certain cases, some already addressed in the text, omissions should be criminal. See R.S. Clark, The Mental Element in International Criminal Law: The Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court and the Elements of Offences, 12 Criminal Law Forum (2001) 291-334, at 303
    • At the same time, however, it is also reported that the majority of the negotiating delegations apparently assumed that in certain cases - some already addressed in the text - omissions should be criminal. See R.S. Clark, 'The Mental Element in International Criminal Law: The Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court and the Elements of Offences', 12 Criminal Law Forum (2001) 291-334, at 303.
  • 78
    • 35248890416 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Judgment, Mucić et al. (IT-96-21-T), Trial Chamber, 16 November 1998, 4§24 (hereinafter: 'Musić Trial Judgment');
    • See Judgment, Mucić et al. (IT-96-21-T), Trial Chamber, 16 November 1998, 4§24 (hereinafter: 'Musić Trial Judgment');
  • 79
    • 35248865309 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Judgment, Kordić and Čerkez (IT-95-14/2-T), Trial Chamber, 26 February 2001, 2§29.
    • Judgment, Kordić and Čerkez (IT-95-14/2-T), Trial Chamber, 26 February 2001, 2§29.
  • 80
    • 35248815556 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Mucić Trial Judgment, supra note 41, 4§94.
    • Mucić Trial Judgment, supra note 41, 4§94.
  • 81
    • 35248882482 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Ibid., at §511.
    • Ibid., at §511.
  • 82
    • 35248849332 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Judgment, Blaškić (IT-95-14-A), Appeals Chamber, 29 July 2004, 4§7 (on aiding and abeting) (hereinafter: 'Blaškić Appeals Judgment');
    • See Judgment, Blaškić (IT-95-14-A), Appeals Chamber, 29 July 2004, 4§7 (on aiding and abeting) (hereinafter: 'Blaškić Appeals Judgment');
  • 83
    • 35248856446 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Judgment, Limaj et al. (IT-03-66-T), Trial Chamber, 30 November 2005, 5§14 (on instigation) (hereinafter: 'Limaj Trial Judgment').
    • Judgment, Limaj et al. (IT-03-66-T), Trial Chamber, 30 November 2005, 5§14 (on instigation) (hereinafter: 'Limaj Trial Judgment').
  • 84
    • 35248824617 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For an even wider concept of omission, see Tadić Appeals Judgment, supra note 1, 1§88
    • For an even wider concept of omission, see Tadić Appeals Judgment, supra note 1, 1§88.
  • 85
    • 35248838829 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See e.g. US Military Tribunal Nuremberg, Judgment of 20 August 1947 ( Brandt et al., so-called Medical Trial), in Trials of War Criminals before the Nuremberg Military Tribunals under Control Council Law No. 10, II (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Service, 1950), at 193 (concerning the supervisory duty of head doctors in regard to their assistants' acts);
    • See e.g. US Military Tribunal Nuremberg, Judgment of 20 August 1947 ( Brandt et al., so-called Medical Trial), in Trials of War Criminals before the Nuremberg Military Tribunals under Control Council Law No. 10, Vol. II (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Service, 1950), at 193 (concerning the supervisory duty of head doctors in regard to their assistants' acts);
  • 86
    • 35248821344 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • US Military Tribunal Nuremberg, Judgment of 28 October 1948 (von Leeb et al., so-called High Command Case), in ibid., XI, 542 et seq.;
    • US Military Tribunal Nuremberg, Judgment of 28 October 1948 (von Leeb et al., so-called High Command Case), in ibid., Vol.XI, 542 et seq.;
  • 87
    • 35248858798 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • British Military Court Brunswick, Judgment of 3 April 1946 (Gerike et al., so-called Velpke Children's Home Trial), in UNWCC, Law Reports on Trials of War Criminals, VII (London: HM Stationary Office, 1947), at 76.
    • British Military Court Brunswick, Judgment of 3 April 1946 (Gerike et al., so-called Velpke Children's Home Trial), in UNWCC, Law Reports on Trials of War Criminals, Vol.VII (London: HM Stationary Office, 1947), at 76.
  • 88
    • 35248832154 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Liability for Omission in International Criminal Law
    • See, 1-61, at et seq
    • See M. Duttwiler, 'Liability for Omission in International Criminal Law', 6 International Criminal Law Review (2006) 1-61, at 30 et seq.;
    • (2006) International Criminal Law Review , vol.6 , pp. 30
    • Duttwiler, M.1
  • 89
    • 35248820638 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • K.Weltz, Die Unterlassungshaftung im Völkerstrafrecht: Eine rechtsvergleichende Untersuchung des französischen, US-amerikanischen und deutschen Rechts (Freiburg im Breisgau: Ed. iuscrim, 2004), 189 et seq.
    • K.Weltz, Die Unterlassungshaftung im Völkerstrafrecht: Eine rechtsvergleichende Untersuchung des französischen, US-amerikanischen und deutschen Rechts (Freiburg im Breisgau: Ed. iuscrim, 2004), 189 et seq.
  • 90
    • 35248888998 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • In Lubanga, the ICC Pre-Trial Chamber, by generally referring to 'actions ou omissions, held obiter that liability for omission is included in the ICC Statute, see ICC, Decision, Lubanga, supra note 29, §§351 et seq.
    • In Lubanga, the ICC Pre-Trial Chamber, by generally referring to 'actions ou omissions, held obiter that liability for omission is included in the ICC Statute, see ICC, Decision, Lubanga, supra note 29, §§351 et seq.
  • 93
    • 35248823617 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • This concept also forms part of customary international law. See Judgment, Galić IT-98-29-T, Trial Chamber, 5 December 2003, 1§68
    • This concept also forms part of customary international law. See Judgment, Galić (IT-98-29-T), Trial Chamber, 5 December 2003, 1§68
  • 94
    • 35248881082 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Judgment, Ndindabahizi (ICTR-2001-71-I), Trial Chamber, 15 July 2004, 4§55.
    • Judgment, Ndindabahizi (ICTR-2001-71-I), Trial Chamber, 15 July 2004, 4§55.
  • 95
    • 35248831672 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Judgment, Kordić and Čerkez (IT-95-14/2-A), Appeals Chamber, 17 December 2004, 2§7 (hereinafter: Kordić and Čerkez Appeals Judgment').
    • See Judgment, Kordić and Čerkez (IT-95-14/2-A), Appeals Chamber, 17 December 2004, 2§7 (hereinafter: Kordić and Čerkez Appeals Judgment').
  • 96
    • 35248874791 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Judgment, Blaškić (IT-95-14-T), Trial Chamber, 3 March 2000, §§280, 339 (hereinafter: Blaškić Trial Judgment');
    • See Judgment, Blaškić (IT-95-14-T), Trial Chamber, 3 March 2000, §§280, 339 (hereinafter: Blaškić Trial Judgment');
  • 97
    • 35248826002 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Limaj Trial Judgment, supra note 44, 5§14.
    • Limaj Trial Judgment, supra note 44, 5§14.
  • 98
    • 35248851522 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Kordić and Čerkez Appeals Judgment, supra note 50, 2§7.
    • Kordić and Čerkez Appeals Judgment, supra note 50, 2§7.
  • 99
    • 35248827659 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Blaškić Trial Judgment, supra note 51, 2§78
    • See Blaškić Trial Judgment, supra note 51, 2§78
  • 100
    • 35248895806 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Judgment, Brdanin (IT-99-36-T), Trial Chamber, 1 September 2004, 2§69
    • Judgment, Brdanin (IT-99-36-T), Trial Chamber, 1 September 2004, 2§69
  • 101
    • 35248858356 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Kordić and Čerkez Appeals Judgment, supra note 50, 3§2.
    • Kordić and Čerkez Appeals Judgment, supra note 50, 3§2.
  • 102
    • 35248867410 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Kordić and Čerkez Appeals Judgment, supra note 50, §28
    • See Kordić and Čerkez Appeals Judgment, supra note 50, §28
  • 103
    • 35248870651 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Semanza Appeals Judgment, supra note 10, §361.
    • Semanza Appeals Judgment, supra note 10, §361.
  • 104
    • 35248848861 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Blaškić Appeals Judgment, supra note 44, §42
    • Blaškić Appeals Judgment, supra note 44, §42
  • 105
    • 35248856957 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Kordić and Čerkez Appeals Judgment, supra note 50, § 30.
    • Kordić and Čerkez Appeals Judgment, supra note 50, § 30.
  • 106
    • 35248847446 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For a summary of the requirements, see Vasiljević Appeals Judgment, supra note 9, §102
    • For a summary of the requirements, see Vasiljević Appeals Judgment, supra note 9, §102
  • 107
    • 35248872046 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Blaškić Appeals Judgment, supra note 44, §45
    • Blaškić Appeals Judgment, supra note 44, §45
  • 108
    • 35248871585 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • a thorough analysis of the state of customary law can be found in Judgment, Furundžija (IT-95-17/1-T), Trial Chamber, 10 December 1998, §§ 192 et seq. (hereinafter: 'Furundžija Trial Judgment').
    • a thorough analysis of the state of customary law can be found in Judgment, Furundžija (IT-95-17/1-T), Trial Chamber, 10 December 1998, §§ 192 et seq. (hereinafter: 'Furundžija Trial Judgment').
  • 109
    • 35248823147 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Judgment, Aleksovski (IT-95-14/1-A), Appeals Chamber, 24 March 2000, §162 (hereinafter: 'Aleksovski Appeals Judgment');
    • Judgment, Aleksovski (IT-95-14/1-A), Appeals Chamber, 24 March 2000, §162 (hereinafter: 'Aleksovski Appeals Judgment');
  • 110
    • 35248843631 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Blaškić Appeals Judgment, supra note 44, §45
    • Blaškić Appeals Judgment, supra note 44, §45
  • 111
    • 35248837414 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Furundžija Trial Judgment, supra note 56, §§235, 249
    • Furundžija Trial Judgment, supra note 56, §§235, 249
  • 112
    • 35248828592 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Judgment, Kamuhanda (ICTR-95-94A-T), Trial Chamber, 22 January 2004, §597.
    • Judgment, Kamuhanda (ICTR-95-94A-T), Trial Chamber, 22 January 2004, §597.
  • 113
    • 35248812525 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Blaškić Appeals Judgment, supra note 44, §48
    • See Blaškić Appeals Judgment, supra note 44, §48
  • 114
    • 35248821166 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Furundžija Trial Judment, supra note 56, §§ 231 et seq.
    • Furundžija Trial Judment, supra note 56, §§ 231 et seq.
  • 115
    • 35248832594 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Blaškić Appeals Judgment, supra note 44, §48
    • See Blaškić Appeals Judgment, supra note 44, §48
  • 116
    • 35248824135 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Judgment, Kamuhanda (ICTR-95-94A-T), Trial Chamber, 22 January 2004, §597.
    • Judgment, Kamuhanda (ICTR-95-94A-T), Trial Chamber, 22 January 2004, §597.
  • 117
    • 35248820181 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • However, for a more restrictive approach see Judgment, Blagojević and Jokić (IT-02-60-T), Trial Chamber, 17 January 2005, §731.
    • However, for a more restrictive approach see Judgment, Blagojević and Jokić (IT-02-60-T), Trial Chamber, 17 January 2005, §731.
  • 118
    • 35248871122 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The ICC Statute does not expressly determine that abetting can lead to liability even after completion of the crime. A footnote to Art. 23 of the Draft ICC Statute (1998) states: 'This presumption [that successive assistance incur criminal liability] was questioned in the context of the ICC. If aiding, etc., ex post facto were deemed necessary to be criminalized, an explicit provision would be needed.' Eser, supra note 2, at 807 also supports the inclusion of 'successive assistance'.
    • The ICC Statute does not expressly determine that abetting can lead to liability even after completion of the crime. A footnote to Art. 23 of the Draft ICC Statute (1998) states: 'This presumption [that successive assistance incur criminal liability] was questioned in the context of the ICC. If aiding, etc., ex post facto were deemed necessary to be criminalized, an explicit provision would be needed.' Eser, supra note 2, at 807 also supports the inclusion of 'successive assistance'.
  • 119
    • 35248837905 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Blaškić Appeals judgment, supra note 44, §48
    • See Blaškić Appeals judgment, supra note 44, §48
  • 121
    • 35248874337 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See also Eser, supra note 2, at 800
    • See also Eser, supra note 2, at 800.
  • 122
    • 35248835099 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Aleksovski Appeals judgment, supra note 57, §162
    • See Aleksovski Appeals judgment, supra note 57, §162
  • 123
    • 35248847431 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Blaškić Appeals judgment, supra note 44, §§ 45, 49
    • Blaškić Appeals judgment, supra note 44, §§ 45, 49
  • 124
    • 35248873869 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Judgment, Kayishema and Ruzindana (ICTR-95-1-A), Appeals Chamber, 1 June 2001, §186.
    • Judgment, Kayishema and Ruzindana (ICTR-95-1-A), Appeals Chamber, 1 June 2001, §186.
  • 125
    • 35248857889 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • This requirement is taken from §2.06 Model Penal Code
    • This requirement is taken from §2.06 Model Penal Code.
  • 126
    • 35248890415 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Trial Judgment, note 56, §§
    • See Furundžija Trial Judgment, supra note 56, §§ 236, 252, 257
    • supra , vol.236 , Issue.252 , pp. 257
    • Furundžija1
  • 127
    • 35248829089 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Krnojelac Appeals Judgment, supra note 15, §52
    • Krnojelac Appeals Judgment, supra note 15, §52
  • 128
    • 35248897625 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Krstić Appeals Judgment, supra note 9, §140.
    • Krstić Appeals Judgment, supra note 9, §140.
  • 129
    • 35248892007 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Mettraux, supra note 28, at 212 et seq., 286 et seq.;
    • Mettraux, supra note 28, at 212 et seq., 286 et seq.;
  • 130
  • 131
    • 35248873408 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Art. 2(3)(c) of the International Convention for the Suppression of Terrorist Bombings of 12 January 1998 (UN Doc. A/RES/52/164).
    • See Art. 2(3)(c) of the International Convention for the Suppression of Terrorist Bombings of 12 January 1998 (UN Doc. A/RES/52/164).
  • 132
    • 35248871564 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Saland, supra note 39, at 199
    • See Saland, supra note 39, at 199
  • 133
    • 35248830736 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Eser, supra note 2, at 802
    • Eser, supra note 2, at 802.
  • 134
    • 35248894369 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Eser, supra note 2, at 802
    • See Eser, supra note 2, at 802.
  • 135
    • 35248884773 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Vogel, supra note 37, at 421
    • See Vogel, supra note 37, at 421.
  • 136
    • 35248834605 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • This interpretation has now been upheld in ICC, Decision, Lubanga, supra note 29, §337
    • This interpretation has now been upheld in ICC, Decision, Lubanga, supra note 29, §337.
  • 139
    • 35248833684 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Under Art. 23 (7)(e) of the Draft ICC Statute (1998), anyone who '[intentionally] [participates in planning] [plans] to commit such a crime which in fact occurs or is attempted' is subject to criminal sanction.
    • Under Art. 23 (7)(e) of the Draft ICC Statute (1998), anyone who '[intentionally] [participates in planning] [plans] to commit such a crime which in fact occurs or is attempted' is subject to criminal sanction.
  • 140
    • 35248837413 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Genocide Convention, Art. III(c), Art. 4 (3)(c) ICTYSt., Art. 2(3)(c) ICTRSt. and Art. 25(3)(e) ICCst.
    • See Genocide Convention, Art. III(c), Art. 4 (3)(c) ICTYSt., Art. 2(3)(c) ICTRSt. and Art. 25(3)(e) ICCst.
  • 141
    • 35248887540 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Judgment, Akayesu (ICTR-96-4-T), Trial Chamber, 2 September 1998, §562 (hereinafter: Akayesu Trial judgment').
    • See Judgment, Akayesu (ICTR-96-4-T), Trial Chamber, 2 September 1998, §562 (hereinafter: Akayesu Trial judgment').
  • 142
    • 35248891523 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See also Draft Code of Crimes against the Peace and Security of Mankind 1996, Commentary on Art. 2, §16.
    • See also Draft Code of Crimes against the Peace and Security of Mankind 1996, Commentary on Art. 2, §16.
  • 143
    • 35248887562 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For more information, see V. Morris and M.P. Scharf, The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, I (New York: Transnational Publishers, 1998), 183
    • For more information, see V. Morris and M.P. Scharf, The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, Vol. I (New York: Transnational Publishers, 1998), 183
  • 144
    • 35248846517 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • D.D.N. Nsereko, 'Genocide: A Crime against Mankind', in G. Kirk McDonald and O. Swaak-Goldman (eds), Substantive and Procedural Aspects of International Criminal Law, 1 (The Hague: Kluwer Law International, 2000) 117-140, at 132 et seq.
    • D.D.N. Nsereko, 'Genocide: A Crime against Mankind', in G. Kirk McDonald and O. Swaak-Goldman (eds), Substantive and Procedural Aspects of International Criminal Law, Vol. 1 (The Hague: Kluwer Law International, 2000) 117-140, at 132 et seq.
  • 146
    • 35248816008 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Judgment, Ruggiu (ICTR-97-32-I), Trial Chamber, 1 June 2000, 1§7
    • Judgment, Ruggiu (ICTR-97-32-I), Trial Chamber, 1 June 2000, 1§7
  • 147
    • 35248862090 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Schabas, supra note 65, at 277
    • Schabas, supra note 65, at 277.
  • 148
    • 35248851521 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Judgment, Kambanda (ICTR-97-23-S), Trial Chamber, 4 September 1998, 3§9 (x).
    • See Judgment, Kambanda (ICTR-97-23-S), Trial Chamber, 4 September 1998, 3§9 (x).
  • 149
    • 35248879721 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Appeals Chamber affirmed the perpetrator's conviction, see Judgment, Kambanda (ICTR-97-23-A), Appeals Chamber, 19 October 2000.
    • The Appeals Chamber affirmed the perpetrator's conviction, see Judgment, Kambanda (ICTR-97-23-A), Appeals Chamber, 19 October 2000.
  • 150
    • 35248864383 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • To separate criminal attempt and mere non-criminal preparation, the provision connects two criteria that are usually applied in the alternative: 'commencement of execution, a criterion borrowed from French criminal law, and a 'substantial step' towards carrying out the crime, according to US law. See K. Ambos, Article 25', in O. Triffterer (ed), Commentary on the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (Baden-Baden: Nomos Verlagsgesellschaft, 1999), marginal no. 32.
    • To separate criminal attempt and mere non-criminal preparation, the provision connects two criteria that are usually applied in the alternative: 'commencement of execution, a criterion borrowed from French criminal law, and a 'substantial step' towards carrying out the crime, according to US law. See K. Ambos, Article 25', in O. Triffterer (ed), Commentary on the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (Baden-Baden: Nomos Verlagsgesellschaft, 1999), marginal no. 32.
  • 151
    • 35248861630 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See also §5.01 Model Penal Code;
    • See also §5.01 Model Penal Code;
  • 152
    • 35248882981 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • T. Weigend, 'Article 3', in M.C. Bassiouni (ed), Commentaries on the International Law Commission's 1991 Draft Code of Crimes against the Peace and Security of Mankind (Toulouse: Érès 1993), 117.
    • T. Weigend, 'Article 3', in M.C. Bassiouni (ed), Commentaries on the International Law Commission's 1991 Draft Code of Crimes against the Peace and Security of Mankind (Toulouse: Érès 1993), 117.
  • 154
    • 35248826449 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For more, see Ambos, supra note 2, at 488
    • For more, see Ambos, supra note 2, at 488
  • 155
    • 35248898782 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Eser, supra note 2, at 813
    • Eser, supra note 2, at 813.
  • 157
    • 35248853843 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See also Eser, supra note 2, at 815
    • See also Eser, supra note 2, at 815.
  • 158
    • 35248894871 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See Ambos, supra note 78, at marginal no. 34.
    • See Ambos, supra note 78, at marginal no. 34.
  • 159
    • 35248857464 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See T. Hillenkamp, 'Versuch', in B. Jähnke et al. (eds), Strafgesetzbuch: Leipziger Kommentar, I (11th edn., Berlin: De Gruyter Becht, 2003), Vor §22, marginal nos 53 et seq.
    • See T. Hillenkamp, 'Versuch', in B. Jähnke et al. (eds), Strafgesetzbuch: Leipziger Kommentar, Vol. I (11th edn., Berlin: De Gruyter Becht, 2003), Vor §22, marginal nos 53 et seq.
  • 160
    • 35248885195 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For a critical view of the inclusion of attempt in the Draft Code of Crimes against the Peace and Security of Mankind 1996, see C.Tomuschat, 'Die Arbeit der ILC in Bereich des materiellen Völkerstrafrechts', in G. Hankel and G. Stuby (eds), Strafgerichte gegen Menschheitsverbrechen (Hamburg: Hamburger Edition, 1995) 270-294, at 288.
    • For a critical view of the inclusion of attempt in the Draft Code of Crimes against the Peace and Security of Mankind 1996, see C.Tomuschat, 'Die Arbeit der ILC in Bereich des materiellen Völkerstrafrechts', in G. Hankel and G. Stuby (eds), Strafgerichte gegen Menschheitsverbrechen (Hamburg: Hamburger Edition, 1995) 270-294, at 288.


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