The tropical forest and fire emissions experiment: Overview and airborne fire emission factor measurements

Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics

Volumn 7, Issue 19, 2007, Pages 5175-5196

  Yokelson, R J ^a   Karl, T ^b   Artaxo, P ^c   Blake, D R ^d   Christian, T J ^a   Griffith, D W T ^e   Guenther, A ^b   Hao, W M ^f  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MONTANA   (United States)

^b NATIONAL CENTER FOR ATMOSPHERIC RESEARCH   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF SÃO PAULO   (Brazil)

^d UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^e UNIVERSITY OF WOLLONGONG   (Australia)

^f USDA FOREST SERVICE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ATMOSPHERIC PLUME; DEFORESTATION; EMISSION; EXPERIMENTAL STUDY; FOREST FIRE; FTIR SPECTROSCOPY; ORGANIC ACID; ORGANIC COMPOUND; PARTICULATE MATTER; PRISTINE ENVIRONMENT; SMOKE; TROPICAL FOREST; VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUND;

BOLIVIA; BRAZIL; PARAGUAY; SAO PAULO [BRAZIL]; SOUTH AMERICA;

EID: 35148870980     PISSN: 16807316     EISSN: 16807324     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.5194/acp-7-5175-2007     Document Type: Article

References (81)

1. Andrade, S. M. A., Neto, W. N., and Miranda, H. S.: The dynamics of components of the fine fuel after recurrent prescribed fires in Central Brazil savannas, Proceedings of the Bushfire 99 Conference, Alburn, Australia, 1998.
2. Andreae, M. O., Anderson, B. E., Blake, D. R., Bradshaw, J. D., Collins, J. E., Gregory, G. L., Sachse, G. W., and Shipham, M. C.: Influence of plumes from biomass burning on atmospheric chemistry over the equatorial and tropical South Atlantic during CITE 3, J. Geophys. Res., 99, 12793-12808, doi:10.1029/94JD00263, 1994.
3. Andreae, M. O., Browell, E. V., Garstang, M., et al.: Biomassburning emissions and associated haze layers over Amazonia, J. Geophys. Res., 93, 1509-1527, doi:10.1029/88JD01585, 1988.
4. Andreae, M. O. and Merlet, P.: Emission of trace gases and aerosols from biomass burning, Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 15, 955-966, doi:10.1029/ 2000GB001382, 2001.
5. Andreae, M. O., Rosenfeld, D., Artaxo, P., Costa, A. A., Frank, G. P., Longo, K. M., and Silva-Dias, M. A. F.: Smoking rain clouds over the Amazon, Science, 303, 1337-1342, 2004.
6. Babbitt, R. E., Ward, D. E., Susott, R. A., Artaxo, P., and Kaufmann, J. B.: A comparison of concurrent airborne and ground based emissions generated from biomass burning in the Amazon Basin, SCAR-B Proceedings, Transtec, São Paulo, Brazil, 1996.
7. Barbosa, R. I. and Fearnside, P. M.: Pasture burning in Amazonia: Dynamics of residual biomass and the storage and release of aboveground carbon, J. Geophys. Res., 101, 25 847-25 857, doi:10.1029/96JD02090, 1996.
8. Bertschi, I. T., Yokelson, R. J., Ward, D. E., Christian, T. J., and Hao, W. M.: Trace gas emissions from the production and use of domestic biofuels in Zambia measured by open-path Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, J. Geophys. Res., 108, 8469, doi:1029/2002/D002158, 2003a.
9. Bertschi, I. T., Yokelson, R. J., Ward, D. E., Babbitt, R. E., Susott, R. A., Goode, J. G., and Hao, W. M.: Trace gas and particle emissions from fires in large-diameter and belowground biomass fuels, J. Geophys. Res., 108, 8472, doi:10.1029/2002JD002100, 2003b.
10. Blake, N. J., Blake, D. R., Sive, B. C., Chen, T. Y., Rowland, F. S., Collins, J. E., Sachse, G. W., and Anderson, B. E.: Biomass burning emissions and vertical distribution of atmospheric methyl halides and other reduced carbon gases in the South Atlantic region, J. Geophys. Res., 101, 24 151-24164, 1996.
11. Brown, I. F., Schroeder, W., Setzer, A., de Los Rios Maldonado, M., Pantoja, N., Duarte, A., and Marengo, J.: Monitoring fires in southwestern Amazonia rain forests, EOS Trans. AGU, 87(26), 253-264, 2006.
12. Cardille, J. A. and Foley, J. A.: Agricultural land-use change in Brazilian Amazonia between 1980 and 1995: Evidence from integrated satellite and census data, Rem. Sens. Environ., 87, 551-562, doi:10.1016/j.rse.2002.09.001, 2003.
13. Carvalho Jr., J. A., Costa, F. S., Veras, C. A. G., Sandberg, D. V., Alvarado, E. C., Gielow, R., Serra Jr., A. M., and Santos, J. C.: Biomass fire consumption and carbon release rates of rainforest-clearing experiments conducted in northern Mato Grosso, Brazil, J. Geophys. Res., 106, 17 877-17 887, doi:10.1029/2000JD900791, 2001.
14. Carvalho Jr., J. A., Higuchi, N., Ara-jo, T. M., and Santos, J. C.: Combustion completeness in a rainforest clearing experiment in Manaus, Brazil, J. Geophys. Res., 103, 13 195-13 199, doi:10.1029/98JD00172, 1998.
15. 2 in Amazonia derived from aircraft observations, J. Geophys. Res., 107, 4614, doi:10.1029/2001JD001295, 2002.
16. Christian, T., Kleiss, B., Yokelson, R. J., Holzinger, R., Crutzen, P. J., Hao, W. M., Saharjo, B. H., and Ward, D. E.: Comprehensive laboratory measurements of biomass-burning emissions: 1. Emissions from Indonesian, African, and other fuels, J. Geophys. Res., 108, 4719, doi:10.1029/2003JD003704, 2003.
17. Christian, T. J., Kleiss, B., Yokelson, R. J., Holzinger, R., Crutzen, P. J., Hao, W. M., Shirai, T., and Blake, D. R.: Comprehensive laboratory measurements of biomass-burning emissions: 2. First intercomparison of open-path FTIR, PTR-MS, and GC-MS/FID/ECD, J. Geophys. Res., 109, D02311, doi: 10.1029/2003JD003874, 2004.
18. Christian, T. J., Yokelson, R. J., Carvalho Jr., J. A., Griffith, D. W. T., Alvarado, E. C., Santos, J. C., Neto, T. G. S., Veras, C. A. G., and Hao, W. M.: The tropical forest and fire emissions experiment: Trace gases emitted by smoldering logs and dung on deforestation and pasture fires in Brazil, J. Geophys. Res., 112, D18308, doi:10.1029/2006JD008147, 2007b.
19. Cochrane, M. A., Alencar, A., Schulze, M. D., Souza Jr., C. M., Nepstad, D. C., Lefebvre, P., and Davidson, E. A.: Positive feedbacks in the fire dynamics of closed canopy tropical forests, Science, 284, 1832-1835, 1999.
20. Colman, J. J., Swanson, A. L., Meinardi, S., Sive, B. C., Blake, D. R., and Rowland, F. S.: Description of the analysis of a wide range of volatile organic compounds in whole air samples collected during PEM tropics A and B, Anal. Chem., 73, 3723-3731, 2001.
21. Coutinho, L. M.: Fire in the ecology of the Brazilian cerrado, in: Fire in the Tropical Biota: Ecosystem Processes and Global Challenges, edited by: Goldammer, J. G., p. 82-105, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1990.
22. Crutzen, P. J. and Andreae, M. O.: Biomass burning in the tropics: Impact on atmospheric chemistry and biogeochemical cycles, Science, 250, 1669-1677, 1990.
23. Crutzen, P. J., Delany, A. C., Greenberg, J., Haagenson, P., Heidt, L., Lueb, R., Pollock, W., Seiler, W., Wartburg, A., and Zimmerman, P.: Tropospheric chemical composition measurements in Brazil during the dry season, J. Geophys. Res., 2, 233-256, 1985.
24. de Gouw, J. A., Warneke, C., Stohl, A., et al.: Volatile organic compounds composition of merged and aged forest fire plumes from Alaska and western Canada, J. Geophys. Res., 111, D10303, doi:10.1029/2005JD006175, 2006.
25. Draxler, R. R. and Rolph, G. D.: HYSPLIT (HYbrid Single-Particle Lagrangian Integrated Trajectory) Model access via NOAA ARL READY Website (http://www.arl.noaa.gov/ready/hysplit4.html), NOAA Air Resources Laboratory, Silver Spring, MD, 2003.
26. Echalar, F., Artaxo, P., Martins, J. V., Yamasoe, M., Gerab, F., Maenhaut, W., and Holben, B.: Long-term monitoring of atmospheric aerosols in the Amazon Basin: Source identification and apportionment, J. Geophys. Res., 103, 31 849-31 864, 1998.
27. Emmons, L. K., Deeter, M. N., Gille, J. C., et al.: Validation of measurements of pollution in the troposphere (MOPITT) CO retrievals with aircraft in situ profiles, J. Geophys. Res., 109, D03309, doi:10.1029/ 2003JD004101, 2004.
28. Fearnside, P. M.: Fire in the tropical rain forest of the Amazon basin, in: Fire in the Tropical Biota: Ecosystem Processes and Global. Challenges, edited by: Goldammer, J. G., p. 106-116, Springer Verlag, Berlin, 1990.
29. Fearnside, P. M.: Global warming and tropical land-use change: Greenhouse gas emissions from biomass burning, decomposition and soils in forest conversion, shifting cultivation and secondary vegetation, Climatic Change, 46, 115-158, doi:10.1023/A: 1005569915357, 2000.
30. Fearnside, P. M., Leal Jr., N., and Fernandes, F. M.: Rainforest burning and the global budget: Biomass, combustion efficiency, and charcoal formation in the Brazilian Amazon, J. Atmos. Chem., 98, 733-743, 1993.
31. Ferek, R. J., Reid, J. S., Hobbs, P. V., Blake, D. R., and Liousse, C.: Emission factors of hydrocarbons, halocarbons, trace gases, and particles from biomass burning in Brazil, J. Geophys. Res., 103, 32 107-32 118, doi:10.1029/98JD00692, 1998.
32. Finlayson-Pitts, B. J. and Pitts Jr., J. N.: Atmospheric Chemistry: Fundamentals and Experimental Techniques, 1098 pp., John Wiley, Inc., New York, 1986.
33. Fishman, J., Fakhruzzaman, K., Cros, B., and Nganga, D.: Identification of widespread pollution in the southern hemisphere deduced from satellite analysis, Science, 252, 1693-1696, 1991.
34. Goode, J. G., Yokelson, R. J., Susott, R. A., and Ward, D. E.: Trace gas emissions from laboratory biomass fires measured by openpath FTIR: Fires in grass and surface fuels, J. Geophys. Res., 104, 21237-21245, doi:10.1029/1999JD900360, 1999.
35. 3OH in 1997 Alaskan biomass burning plumes by airborne Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (AFTIR), J. Geophys. Res., 105, 22147-22166, doi:10.1029/2000JD900287, 2000.
36. Grainger, A.: The future environment for forest management in Latin America, in Management of the Forests of Tropical America: Prospects and Technologies, Institute of Tropical Forestry/USDA Forest Service, Washington, D.C., 1987.
37. Guenther, A., Hewitt, C. N., Erickson, D., et al.: A global model of natural volatile organic compound emissions, J. Geophys. Res., 100(D5), 8873-8892, 1995.
38. Guenther, A., Karl, T., Harley, P., Wiedinmyer, C., Palmer, P. I., and Geron, C.: Estimates of global terrestrial isoprene emissions using MEGAN (Model of Emissions of Gases and Aerosols from Nature), Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, 3181-3210, 2006, http://www.atmos-chem-phys.net/6/3181/2006/.
39. Guild, L. S., Kaufmann, J. B., Ellingson, L. J., Cummings, D. L., Castro, E. A., Babbitt, R. E., and Ward, D. E.: Dynamics associated with total above ground biomass, C, nutrient pools, and biomass burning of primary forest and pasture in Rondônia
40. Brazil during SCAR-B, J. Geophys. Res., 103, 32091-32 100, doi:10.1029/98JD00523, 1998.
41. Hanst, P. L. and Hanst, S. T.: Gas measurement in the fundamental infrared region, in Air Monitoring by Spectroscopic Techniques, edited by M.W. Sigrist, p. 335-470, John Wiley, New York, 1994.
42. Hobbs, P. V., Reid, J. S., Kotchenruther, R. A., Ferek, R. J., and Weiss, R.: Direct radiative forcing by smoke from biomass burning, Science, 275, 1777-1778, 1997.
43. Hobbs, P. V., Sinha, P., Yokelson, R. J., Christian, T. J., Blake, D. R., Gao, S., Kirchstetter, T. W., Novakov, T., and Pilewskie, P.: Evolution of gases and particles from a savanna fire in South Africa, J. Geophys. Res., 108, 8485, doi:10.1029/2002JD002352, 2003.
44. Holben, B., Setzer, A., Eck, T. F., Pereira, A., and Slutsker, I.: Effect of dry-season biomass burning on Amazon basin aerosol concentrations and optical properties, 1992-1994, J. Geophys. Res., 101, 19465-19482, doi:10.1029/96JD01140, 1996.
45. Holzinger, R., Warneke, C., Hansel, A., Jordan, A., Lindinger, W., Scharffe, D. H., Schade, G., and Crutzen, P. J.: Biomass burning as a source of formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, methanol, acetone, acetonitrile, and hydrogen cyanide, Geophys. Res. Lett., 26, 1161-1164, doi:10.1029/1999GL900156, 1999.
46. Jost, C., Trentmann, J., Sprung, D., Andreae, M. O., McQuaid, J. B., and Barjat, H.: Trace gas chemistry in a young biomass burning plume over Namibia: Observations and model simulations, J. Geophys. Res., 108, 8482, doi:10.1029/2002JD002431, 2003.
47. Karl, T. G., Christian, T. J., Yokelson, R. J., Artaxo, P., Hao, W. M., and Guenther, A.: The tropical forest and fire emissions experiment: Method evaluation of volatile organic compound emissions measured by PTR-MS, FTIR, and GC from tropical biomass burning, Atmos. Chem. Phys. Discuss., 7, 8755-8793, 2007, http://www.atmos-chem-phys-discuss.net/7/8755/2007/.
48. Karl, T. G., Guenther, A., Yokelson, R. J., Greenberg, J., Potosnak, M. J., Blake, D. R., and Artaxo P.: The tropical forest and fire emissions experiment: Emission, chemistry, and transport of biogenic volatile organic compounds in the lower atmosphere over Amazonia, J. Geophys. Res., 112, D18302, doi:10.1029/2007JD008539, 2007b.
49. Kauffman, J. B., Cummings, D. L., and Ward, D. E.: Relationships of fire, biomass and nutrient dynamics along a vegetation gradient in the Brazilian cerrado, J. Ecol., 82, 519-531, 1994.
50. Kauffman, J. B., Cummings, D. L., and Ward, D. E.: Fire in the Brazilian Amazon 2. Biomass, nutrient pools and losses in cattle pastures, Oecologia, 113, 415-427, doi:10.1007/s004420050394, 1998.
51. Kauffman, J. B., Sanford, R. L., Cummings, D. L., Salcedo, I. H., and Sampaio, E. V. S. B.: Biomass and nutrient dynamics associated with slash fires in neotropical dry forests, Ecology, 74, 140-151, 1993.
52. Kauffman, J. B. and Uhl, C.: Interactions of anthropogenic activities, fire, and rain forests in the Amazon basin, in: Fire in the Tropical Biota: Ecosystem Processes and Global Challenges, edited by: Goldammer, J. G., p. 117-134, Springer Verlag, Berlin, 1990.
53. Kaufman, Y. J. and Fraser, R. S.: The effect of smoke particles on clouds and climate forcing, Science, 277, 1636-1639, doi:10.1126/science.277.5332. 1636, 1997.Kaufman, Y. J., Setzer, A., Ward, D., Tanre, D., Holben, B. N., Menzel
54. P., Pereira, M. C., and Rasmussen, R.: Biomass burning airborne and spaceborne experiment in the Amazonas (BASE-A), J. Geophys. Res., 97, 14581-14599, doi:10.1029/92JD00275, 1992.
55. Keene, W. C., Lobert, J. M., Crutzen, P. J., Maben, J. R., Scharffe, D. H., Landmann, T., Hély, C., and Brain, C.: Emissions of major gaseous and particulate species during experimental burns of southern African biomass, J. Geophys. Res., 111, D04301, doi:10.1029/2005JD006319, 2006.
56. Kreidenweis, S., Tyndall, G., Barth, M., Dentener, F., Lelieveld, J., and Mozurkewich, M.: Aerosols and clouds, in: Atmospheric Chemistry and Global Change, edited by: Brasseur, G. P., Orlando, J. J., and Tyndall, G. S., p. 117-155, Oxford University Press, New York, 1999.
57. Laurance, W. F.: Cut and run: The dramatic rise of transnational logging in the tropics, Trends Ecol. Evol., 15, 433-434, 1990.
58. Li, Q., Jacob, D. J., Bey, I., Yantosca, R. M., Zhao, Y., Kondo, Y., and Notholt, J.: Atmospheric hydrogen cyanide (HCN): biomass burning source, ocean sink?, Geophys. Res. Lett., 27, 357-360, doi:10.1029/1999GL010935, 2000.
59. Lindinger, W., Jordan, A., and Hansel, A.: Proton-transfer-reaction mass spectrometry (PTR-MS): on-line monitoring of volatile organic compounds at pptv levels, Chem. Soc. Rev., 27, 347-375, doi:10.1039/a827347z, 1998.
60. Lobert, J. M., Scharffe, D. H., Hao, W. M., Kuhlbusch, T. A., Seuwen, R., Warneck, P., and Crutzen, P. J.: Experimental evaluation of biomass burning emissions: Nitrogen and carbon containing compounds, in: Global Biomass Burning: Atmospheric, Climatic, and Biospheric Implications, edited by: Levine, J. S., p. 289-304, MIT Press, Cambridge, 1991.
61. Mason, S. A., Field, R. J., Yokelson, R. J., Kochivar, M. A., Tinsley, M. R., Ward, D. E., and Hao, W. M.: Complex effects arising in smoke plume simulations due to inclusion of direct emissions of oxygenated organic species from biomass combustion, J. Geophys. Res., 106(D 12), 12527-12540, doi: 10.1029/2001JD900003, 2001.
62. Morton, D. C., DeFries, R. S., Shimabukuro, Y. E., Anderson, L. O., Arai, E., Espirito-Santo, F., Freitas, R., and Morisette, J.: Cropland expansion changes deforestation dynamics in the southern Brazilian Amazon, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 2006.
63. Ottmar, R. D.: Smoke source characteristics, in: Smoke Management Guide for Prescribed and Wildland Fire: 2001 Edition, edited by: Hardy, C., Ottmar, R., Peterson, J., Core, J., and Seamon, P., National Interagency Fire Center, Boise, ID, US, 2001.
64. Page, S. E., Siegert, F., Rieley, J. O., Boehm, H.-D. V., Jaya, A., and Limin, S.: The amount of carbon released from peat and forest fires in Indonesia during 1997, Nature, 420(6911), 61-65, 2002.
65. Pereira, E. B., Setzer, A. W., Gerab, F., Artaxo, P. E., Pereira, M. C., and Monroe, G.: Airborne measurements of aerosols from burning biomass in Brazil related to the TRACE A experiment, J. Geophys. Res., 101, 23 983-23 992, 1996.
66. Prather, M., Derwent, R., Ehhalt, D., Fraser, P., Sanhueza, E., and Zhou, X.: Other trace gases and atmospheric chemistry, in: Climate Change 1994: Radiative Forcing of Climate Change and an Evaluation of the IPCC IS92 Emission Scenarios, edited by: Houghton, J. T., Filho, L. G. M., Bruce, J., Lee, H., Callader, B. A., Haites, E., Harris, N., and Maskell, K., Cambridge University Press, New York, 1994.
67. Radke, L. F., Hegg, D. A., Hobbs, P. V., Nance, J. D., Lyons, J. H., Laursen, K. K., Weiss, R. E., Riggan, P. J., and Ward, D. E.: Particulate and trace gas emissions from large biomass fires in North America, in: Global Biomass Burning, edited by: J. Levine, p. 209-224, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1991.
68. Reid, J. S., Hobbs, P. V., Ferek, R. J., Blake, D. R., Martins, J. V., Dunlap, M. R., and Liousse, C.: Physical, chemical, and optical properties of regional hazes dominated by smoke in Brazil, J. Geophys. Res., 103(D24), 32059-32080, doi:10.1029/98JD00458, 1998.
69. Schmid, B., Redemann, J., Russell, P. B., et al.: Coordinated airborne, spaceborne, and ground-based measurements of massive thick aerosol layers during the dry season in southern Africa, J. Geophys. Res., 108(D13), 8496, doi: 10.1029/2002JD002297, 2003.
70. Shim, C., Wang, Y., Singh, H. B., Blake, D. R., and Guenther, A. B.: Source characteristics of oxygenated volatile organic compounds and hydrogen cyanide, J. Geophys. Res., 112, D10305, doi: 10.1029/2006JD007543, 2007.
71. Singh, H. B., Kanakidou, M., Crutzen, P. J., and Jacob, D. J.: High concentrations and photochemical fate of oxygenated hydrocarbons in the global troposphere, Nature, 378(6552), 50-54, 1995.
72. Susott, R. A., Olbu, G. J., Baker, S. P., Ward, D. E., Kauffman, J. B., and Shea, R.: Carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and thermogravimetric analysis of tropical ecosystem biomass, in: Biomass Burning and Global Change, edited by: Levine, J. S., p. 350-360, MIT Press, Cambridge, 1996.
73. Tabazadeh, A., Yokelson, R. J., Singh, H. B., Hobbs, P. V., Crawford, J. H., and Iraci, L. T.: Heterogeneous chemistry involving methanol in tropospheric clouds, Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, L06114, doi:10.1029/2003GL018775, 2004.
74. Trentmann, J., Yokelson, R. J., Hobbs, P. V., Winterrath, T., Christian, T. J., Andreae, M. O., and Mason, S. A.: An analysis of the chemical processes in the smoke plume from a savanna fire, J. Geophys. Res., 110, D12301, doi: 10.1029/2004JD005628, 2005.
75. Ward, D. E. and Radke, L. F.: Emissions measurements from vegetation fires: A comparative evaluation of methods and results, in: Fire in the Environment: The Ecological, Atmospheric and Climatic Importance of Vegetation Fires, edited by: Crutzen, P. J. and Goldammer, J. G., p. 53-76, John Wiley, New York, 1993.
76. Ward, D. E., Susott, R. A., Kauffman, J. B., Babbitt, R. E., Cummings, D. L., Dias, B., Holden, B. N., Kaufman, Y. J., Rasmussen, R. A., and Setzer, A. W.: Smoke and fire characteristics for Cerrado and deforestation burns in Brazil: BASE-B experiment, J. Geophys. Res., 97, 14601-14619, doi:10.1029/92JD01218, 1992.
77. Yokelson, R. J., Bertschi, I. T., Christian, T. J., Hobbs, P. V., Ward, D. E., and Hao, W. M.: Trace gas measurements in nascent, aged, and cloud-processed smoke from African savanna fires by airborne Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (AFTIR), J. Geophys. Res., 108(D13), 8478, doi:10.1029/2002JD002322, 2003a.
78. Yokelson, R. J., Christian, T. J., Bertschi, I. T., and Hao, W. M.: Evaluation of adsorption effects on measurements of ammonia, acetic acid, and methanol, J. Geophys. Res., 108(D20), 4649, doi: 10.1029/2003JD003549, 2003b.
79. Yokelson, R. J., Goode, J. G., Ward, D. E., Susott, R. A., Babbitt, R. E., Wade, D. D., Bertschi, I., Griffith, D. W. T., and Hao, W. M.: Emissions of formaldehyde, acetic acid, methanol, and other trace gases from biomass fires in North Carolina measured by airborne Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, J. Geophys. Res., 104, 30109-30126, doi:10.1029/1999JD900817, 1999.
80. Yokelson, R. J., Susott, R., Ward, D. E., Reardon, J., and Griffith, D. W. T.: Emissions from smoldering combustion of biomass measured by open-path Fourier transform, infrared spectroscopy, J. Geophys. Res., 102, 18 865-18 878, doi:10.1029/97JD00852, 1997.
81. Yokelson, R. J., Griffith, D. W. T., and Ward, D. E.: Openpath Fourier transform infrared studies of large-scale laboratory biomass fires, J. Geophys. Res., 101, 21067-21080, doi:10.1029/96JD01800, 1996.