Functional imaging of cancer with emphasis on molecular techniques

CA Cancer Journal for Clinicians

Volumn 57, Issue 4, 2007, Pages 206-224

  Torigian, Drew A ^a   Huang, Steve S ^a   Houseni, Mohamed ^a   Alavi, Abass ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

1 FLUORO 3 (2 NITRO 1 IMIDAZOLYL) 2 PROPANOL F 18; AMINO ACID; ANTINEOPLASTIC AGENT; CARBON 11; CYCLOPHOSPHAMIDE; CYTOSTATIC AGENT; ESTROGEN RECEPTOR; FLUORODEOXYGLUCOSE F 18; FLUOROURACIL; GADOLINIUM; GLUCOSE DERIVATIVE; HISTONE DEACETYLASE INHIBITOR; IMATINIB; SOMATOSTATIN RECEPTOR; TRACER;

AMINO ACID METABOLISM; ANGIOGENESIS; APOPTOSIS; CANCER; CANCER CHEMOTHERAPY; CANCER RADIOTHERAPY; CARCINOID; CELL PROLIFERATION; CLINICAL FEATURE; CLINICAL TRIAL; COMPUTER ASSISTED TOMOGRAPHY; DIFFUSION TENSOR IMAGING; DIFFUSION WEIGHTED IMAGING; ECHOGRAPHY; GASTRINOMA; GASTROINTESTINAL STROMAL TUMOR; GENE EXPRESSION; GLIOBLASTOMA; GLUCOSE METABOLISM; HEALTH CARE PLANNING; HODGKIN DISEASE; HUMAN; IN VITRO STUDY; IN VIVO STUDY; INSULINOMA; INTERMETHOD COMPARISON; INTERVENTION STUDY; LUNG SMALL CELL CANCER; LYMPH NODE; METABOLITE; NONHODGKIN LYMPHOMA; NONHUMAN; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE SPECTROSCOPY; OXYGENATION; PERFUSION WEIGHTED IMAGING; POSITRON EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROSTATE CARCINOMA; REVIEW; SINGLE PHOTON EMISSION COMPUTER TOMOGRAPHY; THYROID CANCER; COMPUTER ASSISTED EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY; DRUG DESIGN; IMAGE ENHANCEMENT; NEOPLASM; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; PATHOLOGY;

APOPTOSIS; DRUG DESIGN; GENE EXPRESSION; HUMANS; IMAGE ENHANCEMENT; MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; MAGNETIC RESONANCE SPECTROSCOPY; NEOPLASMS; POSITRON-EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY; RECEPTORS, ESTROGEN; RECEPTORS, SOMATOSTATIN; TOMOGRAPHY, EMISSION-COMPUTED; TOMOGRAPHY, EMISSION-COMPUTED, SINGLE-PHOTON;

EID: 34548165833     PISSN: 00079235     EISSN: 15424863     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3322/canjclin.57.4.206     Document Type: Review

References (133)

1. Atri M. New technologies and directed agents for applications of cancer imaging. J Clin Oncol 2006;24:3299-3308.
2. Alavi A, Lakhani P, Mavi A, et al. PET: a revolution in medical imaging. Radiol Clin North Am 2004;42:983-1001.
3. Pieterman RM, van Putten JW, Meuzelaar JJ, et al. Preoperative staging of non-small-cell lung cancer with positron-emission tomography. N Engl J Med 2000;343:254-261.
4. Therasse P, Arbuck SG, Eisenhauer EA, et al. New guidelines to evaluate the response to treatment in solid tumors. European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer, National Cancer Institute of the United States, National Cancer Institute of Canada. J Natl Cancer Inst 2000;92:205-216.
5. Therasse P, Eisenhauer EA, Verweij J. RECIST revisited: a review of validation studies on tumour assessment. Eur J Cancer 2006;42:1031-1039.
6. Schnall M, Rosen M. Primer on imaging technologies for cancer. J Clin Oncol 2006;24:3225-3233.
7. Aksoy FG, Lev MH. Dynamic contrast-enhanced brain perfusion imaging: technique and clinical applications. Semin Ultrasound CT MR 2000;21:462-477.
8. Miles KA. Tumour angiogenesis and its relation to contrast enhancement on computed tomography: a review. Eur J Radiol 1999;30:198-205.
9. Padhani AR, Leach MO. Antivascular cancer treatments: functional assessments by dynamic contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging. Abdom Imaging 2005;30:324-341.
10. Hylton N. Dynamic contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging as an imaging biomarker. J Clin Oncol 2006;24:3293-3298.
11. George ML, Dzik-Jurasz AS, Padhani AR, et al. Non-invasive methods of assessing angiogenesis and their value in predicting response to treatment in colorectal cancer. Br J Surg 2001;88:1628-1636.
12. Erdogan C, Hakyemez B, Yildirim N, Parlak M. Brain abscess and cystic brain tumor: discrimination with dynamic susceptibility contrast perfusion-weighted MRI. J Comput Assist Tomogr 2005;29:663-667.
13. Leach MO, Brindle KM, Evelhoch JL, et al. The assessment of antiangiogenic and antivascular therapies in early-stage clinical trials using magnetic resonance imaging: issues and recommendations. Br J Cancer 2005;92:1599-1610.
14. Miles KA, Charnsangavej C, Lee FT, et al. Application of CT in the investigation of angiogenesis in oncology. Acad Radiol 2000;7:840-850.
15. Miles KA. Functional CT imaging in oncology. Eur Radiol 2003;13(suppl):M134-M138.
16. Tateishi U, Kusumoto M, Nishihara H, et al. Contrast-enhanced dynamic computed tomography for the evaluation of tumor angiogenesis in patients with lung carcinoma. Cancer 2002;95:835-842.
17. Ng QS, Goh V, Fichte H, et al. Lung cancer perfusion at multi-detector row CT: reproducibility of whole tumor quantitative measurements. Radiology 2006;239:547-553.
18. Gee MS, Saunders HM, Lee JC, et al. Doppler ultrasound imaging detects changes in tumor perfusion during antivascular therapy associated with vascular anatomic alterations. Cancer Res 2001;61:2974-2982.
19. Robbin ML. Ultrasound contrast agents: a promising future. Radiol Clin North Am 2001;39:399-414.
20. Su JM, Huang YF, Chen HH, et al. Three-dimensional power doppler ultrasound is useful to monitor the response to treatment in a patient with primary papillary serous carcinoma of the peritoneum. Ultrasound Med Biol 2006;32:623-626.
21. Le Bihan D, Poupon C, Amadon A, Lethimonnier F. Artifacts and pitfalls in diffusion MRI. J Magn Reson Imaging 2006;24:478-488.
22. Chenevert TL, Meyer CR, Moffat BA, et al. Diffusion MRI: a new strategy for assessment of cancer therapeutic efficacy. Mol Imaging 2002;1:336-343.
23. Mascalchi M, Filippi M, Floris R, et al. Diffusion-weighted MR of the brain: methodology and clinical application. Radiol Med (Torino) 2005;109:155-197.
24. Hamstra DA, Chenevert TL, Moffat BA, et al. Evaluation of the functional diffusion map as an early biomarker of time-to-progression and overall survival in high-grade glioma. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2005;102:16759-16764.
25. Hein PA, Eskey CJ, Dunn JF, Hug EB. Diffusion-weighted imaging in the follow-up of treated high-grade gliomas: tumor recurrence versus radiation injury. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2004;25:201-209.
26. Bukte Y, Paksoy Y, Genc E, Uca AU. Role of diffusion-weighted MR in differential diagnosis of intracranial cystic lesions. Clin Radiol 2005;60:375-383.
27. Guo AC, Cummings TJ, Dash RC, Provenzale JM. Lymphomas and high-grade astrocytomas: comparison of water diffusibility and histologic characteristics. Radiology 2002;224:177-183.
28. Le Bihan D, Mangin JF, Poupon C, et al. Diffusion tensor imaging: concepts and applications. J Magn Reson Imaging 2001;13:534-546.
29. Cruz LC Jr, Sorensen AG. Diffusion tensor magnetic resonance imaging of brain tumors. Magn Reson Imaging Clin N Am 2006;14:183-202.
30. Pickles MD, Gibbs P, Lowry M, Turnbull LW. Diffusion changes precede size reduction in neoadjuvant treatment of breast cancer. Magn Reson Imaging 2006;24:843-847.
31. Woodhams R, Matsunaga K, Iwabuchi K, et al. Diffusion-weighted imaging of malignant breast tumors: the usefulness of apparent diffusion coefficient (ADC) value and ADC map for the detection of malignant breast tumors and evaluation of cancer extension. J Comput Assist Tomogr 2005;29:644-649.
32. 99mTc-human serum albumin: an effective radiotracer for identifying sentinel lymph nodes in melanoma. J Nucl Med 1999;40:1143-1148.
33. Kumar R, Zhuang H, Schnall M, et al. FDG PET positive lymph nodes are highly predictive of metastasis in breast cancer. Nucl Med Commun 2006;27:231-236.
34. Harisinghani MG, Barentsz J, Hahn PF, et al. Noninvasive detection of clinically occult lymphnode metastases in prostate cancer. N Engl J Med 2003;348:2491-2499.
35. Harisinghani MG, Dixon WT, Saksena MA, et al. MR lymphangiography: imaging strategies to optimize the imaging of lymph nodes with ferumoxtran-10. Radiographics 2004;24:867-878.
36. Deserno WM, Harisinghani MG, Taupitz M, et al. Urinary bladder cancer: preoperative nodal staging with ferumoxtran-10-enhanced MR imaging. Radiology 2004;233:449-456.
37. Will O, Purkayastha S, Chan C, et al. Diagnostic precision of nanoparticle-enhanced MRI for lymphnode metastases: a meta-analysis. Lancet Oncol 2006;7:52-60.
38. Levin CS. Primer on molecular imaging technology. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2005;32(suppl):S325-S345.
39. Alavi A, Kung JW, Zhuang H. Implications of PET based molecular imaging on the current and future practice of medicine. Semin Nucl Med 2004;34:56-69.
40. Kelloff GJ, Hoffman JM, Johnson B, et al. Progress and promise of FDG-PET imaging for cancer patient management and oncologic drug development. Clin Cancer Res 2005;11:2785-2808.
41. Gould MK, Maclean CC, Kuschner WG, et al. Accuracy of positron emission tomography for diagnosis of pulmonary nodules and mass lesions: a meta-analysis. JAMA 2001;285:914-924.
42. Toloza EM, Harpole L, McCrory DC. Non-invasive staging of non-small cell lung cancer: a review of the current evidence. Chest 2003;123(suppl):137S-146S
43. Juweid ME, Cheson BD. Positron-emission tomography and assessment of cancer therapy. N Engl J Med 2006;354:496-507.
44. Bradley J, Thorstad WL, Mutic S, et al. Impact of FDG-PET on radiation therapy volume delineation in non-small-cell lung cancer. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 2004;59:78-86.
45. Ciernik IF, Dizendorf E, Baumert BG, et al. Radiation treatment planning with an integrated positron emission and computer tomography (PET/CT): a feasibility study. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 2003;57:853-863.
46. van Baardwijk A, Baumert BG, Bosmans G, et al. The current status of FDG-PET in tumour volume definition in radiotherapy treatment planning. Cancer Treat Rev 2006;32:245-260.
47. Ahuja V, Coleman RE, Herndon J, Patz EF Jr. The prognostic significance of fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography imaging for patients with nonsmall cell lung carcinoma. Cancer 1998;83:918-924.
48. Weber WA. Positron emission tomography as an imaging biomarker. J Clin Oncol 2006;24:3282-3292.
49. Ceresoli GL, Chiti A, Zucali PA, et al. Early response evaluation in malignant pleural mesothelioma by positron emission tomography with [18F]fluorodeoxyglucose. J Clin Oncol 2006;24:4587-4593.
50. Stroobants S, Goeminne J, Seegers M, et al. 18FDG-Positron emission tomography for the early prediction of response in advanced soft tissue sarcoma treated with imatinib mesylate (Glivec). Eur J Cancer 2003;39:2012-2020.
51. Antoch G, Saoudi N, Kuehl H, et al. Accuracy of whole-body dual-modality fluorine-18-2-fluoro-2-deoxy-D-glucose positron emission tomography and computed tomography (FDG-PET/CT) for tumor staging in solid tumors: comparison with CT and PET. J Clin Oncol 2004;22:4357-4368.
52. Matthies A, Hickeson M, Cuchiara A, Alavi A. Dual time point 18F-FDG PET for the evaluation of pulmonary nodules. J Nucl Med 2002;43:871-875.
53. Ishiwata K, Kubota K, Murakami M, et al. A comparative study on protein incorporation of L-[methyl-3H]methionine, L-[1-14C]leucine and L-2-[18F]fluorotyrosine in tumor bearing mice. Nucl Med Biol 1993;20:895-899.
54. Jacobs AH, Thomas A, Kracht LW, et al. 18F-fluoro-L-thymidine and 11C-methylmethionine as markers of increased transport and proliferation in brain tumors. J Nucl Med 2005;46:1948-1958.
55. Watanabe H, Inoue T, Shinozaki T, et al. PET imaging of musculoskeletal tumours with fluorine-18 alpha-methyltyrosine: comparison with fluorine-18 fluorodeoxyglucose PET. Eur J Nucl Med 2000;27:1509-1517.
56. Hoegerle S, Altehoefer C, Ghanem N, et al. Whole-body 18F dopa PET for detection of gastrointestinal carcinoid tumors. Radiology 2001;220:373-380.
57. Montravers F, Grahek D, Kerrou K, et al. Can fluorodihydroxyphenylalanine PET replace somatostatin receptor scintigraphy in patients with digestive endocrine tumors? J Nucl Med 2006;47:1455-1462.
58. Chen W, Silverman DH, Delaloye S, et al. 18F-FDOPA PET imaging of brain tumors: comparison study with 18F-FDG PET and evaluation of diagnostic accuracy. J Nucl Med 2006;47:904-911.
59. Couturier O, Luxen A, Chatal JF, et al. Fluorinated tracers for imaging cancer with positron emission tomography. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2004;31:1182-1206.
60. Shields AF, Grierson JR, Dohmen BM, et al. Imaging proliferation in vivo with [F-18]FLT and positron emission tomography. Nat Med 1998;4:1334-1336.
61. Yang YJ, Ryu JS, Kim SY, et al. Use of 3′-deoxy-3′-[18F] fluorothymidine PET to monitor early responses to radiation therapy in murine SCCVII tumors. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2006;33:412-419.
62. Vaupel P, Mayer A, Briest S, Hockel M. Hypoxia in breast cancer: role of blood flow, oxygen diffusion distances, and anemia in the development of oxygen depletion. Adv Exp Med Biol 2005;566:333-342.
63. Kirkpatrick JP, Cardenas-Navia LI, Dewhirst MW. Predicting the effect of temporal variations in PO2 on tumor radiosensitivity. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 2004;59:822-833.
64. Chao KS, Bosch WR, Mutic S, et al. A novel approach to overcome hypoxic tumor resistance: Cu-ATSM-guided intensity-modulated radiation therapy. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 2001;49:1171-1182.
65. Rajendran JG, Krohn KA. Imaging hypoxia and angiogenesis in tumors. Radiol Clin North Am 2005;43:169-187.
66. Rajendran JG, Schwartz DL, O'Sullivan J, et al. Tumor hypoxia imaging with [F-18] fluoromisonidazole positron emission tomography in head and neck cancer. Clin Cancer Res 2006;12:5435-5441.
67. Hicks RJ, Rischin D, Fisher R, et al. Utility of FMISO PET in advanced head and neck cancer treated with chemoradiation incorporating a hypoxia-targeting chemotherapy agent. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2005;32:1384-1391.
68. Fujibayashi Y, Taniuchi H, Yonekura Y, et al. Copper-62-ATSM: a new hypoxia imaging agent with high membrane permeability and low redox potential. J Nucl Med 1997;38:1155-1160.
69. Yuan H, Schroeder T, Bowsher JE, et al. Intertumoral differences in hypoxia selectivity of the PET imaging agent 64Cu(II)-diacetyl-bis(N4- methylthiosemicarbazone). J Nucl Med 2006;47:989-998.
70. Ziemer LS, Evans SM, Kachur AV, et al. Noninvasive imaging of tumor hypoxia in rats using the 2-nitroimidazole 18F-EF5. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2003;30:259-266.
71. Evans SM, Hahn S, Pook DR, et al. Detection of hypoxia in human squamous cell carcinoma by EF5 binding. Cancer Res 2000;60:2018-2024.
72. Evans SM, Judy KD, Dunphy I, et al. Comparative measurements of hypoxia in human brain tumors using needle electrodes and EF5 binding. Cancer Res 2004;64:1886-1892.
73. Vlieger EJ, Majoie CB, Leenstra S, Den Heeten GJ. Functional magnetic resonance imaging for neurosurgical planning in neurooncology. Eur Radiol 2004;14:1143-1153.
74. Ogawa S, Lee TM, Kay AR, Tank DW. Brain magnetic resonance imaging with contrast dependent on blood oxygenation. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1990;87:9868-9872.
75. Padhani AR. Where are we with imaging oxygenation in human tumours? Cancer Imaging 2005;5:128-130.
76. Krishna MC, Subramanian S, Kuppusamy P, Mitchell JB. Magnetic resonance imaging for in vivo assessment of tissue oxygen concentration. Semin Radiat Oncol 2001;11:58-69.
77. Meisetschlager G, Poethko T, Stahl A, et al. Gluc-Lys([18F]FP)-TOCA PET in patients with SSTR-positive tumors: biodistribution and diagnostic evaluation compared with [111In]DTPA-octreotide. J Nucl Med 2006;47:566-573.
78. Dehdashti F, Flanagan FL, Mortimer JE, et al. Positron emission tomographic assessment of "metabolic flare" to predict response of metastatic breast cancer to antiestrogen therapy. Eur J Nucl Med 1999;26:51-56.
79. Linden HM, Stekhova SA, Link JM, et al. Quantitative fluoroestradiol positron emission tomography imaging predicts response to endocrine treatment in breast cancer. J Clin Oncol 2006;24:2793-2799.
80. Folkman J, Merler E, Abernathy C, Williams G. Isolation of a tumor factor responsible for angiogenesis. J Exp Med 1971;133:275-288.
81. Folkman J. Tumor angiogenesis: therapeutic implications. N Engl J Med 1971;285:1182-1186.
82. Haubner R, Wester HJ, Burkhart F, et al. Glycosylated RGD-containing peptides: tracer for tumor targeting and angiogenesis imaging with improved biokinetics. J Nucl Med 2001;42:326-336.
83. Belvisi L, Bernardi A, Colombo M, et al. Targeting integrins: insights into structure and activity of cyclic RGD pentapeptide mimics containing azabicycloalkane amino acids. Bioorg Med Chem 2006;14:169-180.
84. Pierschbacher MD, Ruoslahti E. Influence of stereochemistry of the sequence Arg-Gly-Asp-Xaa on binding specificity in cell adhesion. J Biol Chem 1987;262:17294-17298.
85. Friess H, Langrehr JM, Oettle H, et al. A randomized multi-center phase II trial of the angiogenesis inhibitor Cilengitide (EMD 121974) and gemcitabine compared with gemcitabine alone in advanced unresectable pancreatic cancer. BMC Cancer 2006;6:285.
86. Albert JM, Cao C, Geng L, et al. Integrin alpha v beta 3 antagonist Cilengitide enhances efficacy of radiotherapy in endothelial cell and non-small-cell lung cancer models. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 2006;65:1536-1543.
87. Liu S. Radiolabeled multimeric cyclic RGD peptides as integrin alphavbeta3 targeted radiotracers for tumor imaging. Mol Pharm 2006;3:472-487.
88. Beer AJ, Haubner R, Sarbia M, et al. Positron emission tomography using [18F]Galacto-RGD identifies the level of integrin alpha(v)beta3 expression in man. Clin Cancer Res 2006;12:3942-3949.
89. Nip J, Shibata H, Loskutoff DJ, et al. Human melanoma cells derived from lymphatic metastases use integrin alpha v beta 3 to adhere to lymph node vitronectin. J Clin Invest 1992;90:1406-1413.
90. Fadeel B, Orrenius S. Apoptosis: a basic biological phenomenon with wide-ranging implications in human disease. J Intern Med 2005;258:479-517.
91. Blankenberg FG, Tait JF, Strauss HW. Apoptotic cell death: its implications for imaging in the next millennium. Eur J Nuclear Med 2000;27:359-367.
92. Blankenberg FG, Katsikis PD, Tait JF, et al. In vivo detection and imaging of phosphatidylserine expression during programmed cell death. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1998;95:6349-6354.
93. Ntziachristos V, Schellenberger EA, Ripoll J, et al. Visualization of antitumor treatment by means of fluorescence molecular tomography with an annexin V-Cy5.5 conjugate. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2004;101:12294-12299.
94. Serganova I, Blasberg R. Reporter gene imaging: potential impact on therapy. Nucl Med Biol 2005;32:763-780.
95. Caruthers SD, Winter PM, Wickline SA, Lanza GM. Targeted magnetic resonance imaging contrast agents. Methods Mol Med 2006;124:387-400.
96. Schmieder AH, Winter PM, Caruthers SD, et al. Molecular MR imaging of melanoma angiogenesis with alphanubeta3-targeted paramagnetic nanoparticles. Magn Reson Med 2005;53:621-627.
97. Schellenberger EA, Hogemann D, Josephson L, Weissleder R. Annexin V-CLIO: a nanoparticle for detecting apoptosis by MRI. Acad Radiol 2002;9(suppl):S310- S311.
98. Brindle KM. Molecular imaging using magnetic resonance: new tools for the development of tumour therapy. Br J Radiol 2003;76:S111-S117.
99. Sorensen AG. Magnetic resonance as a cancer imaging biomarker. J Clin Oncol 2006;24:3274-3281.
100. Mountford C, Lean C, Malycha P, Russell P. Proton spectroscopy provides accurate pathology on biopsy and in vivo. J Magn Reson Imaging 2006;24:459-477.
101. Sharma U, Mehta A, Seenu V, Jagannathan NR. Biochemical characterization of metastatic lymph nodes of breast cancer patients by in vitro 1H magnetic resonance spectroscopy: a pilot study. Magn Reson Imaging 2004;22:697-706.
102. Kurhanewicz J, Vigneron DB, Nelson SJ. Three-dimensional magnetic resonance spectroscopic imaging of brain and prostate cancer. Neoplasia 2000;2:166-189.
103. Henry RG, Vigneron DB, Fischbein NJ, et al. Comparison of relative cerebral blood volume and proton spectroscopy in patients with treated gliomas. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2000;21:357-366.
104. Oh J, Henry RG, Pirzkall A, et al. Survival analysis in patients with glioblastoma multiforme: predictive value of choline-to-N-acetylaspartate index, apparent diffusion coefficient, and relative cerebral blood volume. J Magn Reson Imaging 2004;19:546-554.
105. Pirzkall A, McKnight TR, Graves EE, et al. MR-spectroscopy guided target delineation for high-grade gliomas. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 2001;50:915-928.
106. Lai PH, Hsu SS, Lo YK, Ding SW. Role of diffusion-weighted imaging and proton MR spectroscopy in distinguishing between pyogenic brain abscess and necrotic brain tumor. Acta Neurol Taiwan 2004;13:107-113.
107. Fan G, Sun B, Wu Z, et al. In vivo single-voxel proton MR spectroscopy in the differentiation of high-grade gliomas and solitary metastases. Clin Radiol 2004;59:77-85.
108. Rock JP, Hearshen D, Scarpace L, et al. Correlations between magnetic resonance spectroscopy and image-guided histopathology, with special attention to radiation necrosis. Neurosurgery 2002;51:912-919.
109. Swindle P, McCredie S, Russell P, et al. Pathologic characterization of human prostate tissue with proton MR spectroscopy. Radiology 2003;228:144-151.
110. Cheng LL, Burns MA, Taylor JL, et al. Metabolic characterization of human prostate cancer with tissue magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Cancer Res 2005;65:3030-3034.
111. Cho SG, Lee DH, Lee KY, et al. Differentiation of chronic focal pancreatitis from pancreatic carcinoma by in vivo proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy. J Comput Assist Tomogr 2005;29:163-169.
112. Narayan P, Jajodia P, Kurhanewicz J, et al. Characterization of prostate cancer, benign prostatic hyperplasia and normal prostates using transrectal 31phosphorus magnetic resonance spectroscopy: a preliminary report. J Urol 1991;146:66-74.
113. Shukla-Dave A, Poptani H, Loevner LA, et al. Prediction of treatment response of head and neck cancers with P-31 MR spectroscopy from pretreatment relative phosphomonoester levels. Acad Radiol 2002;9:688-694.
114. Arias-Mendoza F, Smith MR, Brown TR. Predicting treatment response in non-Hodgkin's lymphoma from the pretreatment tumor content of phosphoethanolamine plus phosphocholine. Acad Radiol 2004;11:368-376.
115. Golman K, Petersson JS. Metabolic imaging and other applications of hyperpolarized 13C1. Acad Radiol 2006;13:932-942.
116. Yu Y, Annala AJ, Barrio JR, et al. Quantification of target gene expression by imaging reporter gene expression in living animals. Nat Med 2000;6:933-937.
117. Cao Y, Li CY, Moeller BJ, et al. Observation of incipient tumor angiogenesis that is independent of hypoxia and hypoxia inducible factor-1 activation. Cancer Res 2005;65:5498-5505.
118. Tjuvajev JG, Avril N, Oku T, et al. Imaging herpes virus thymidine kinase gene transfer and expression by positron emission tomography. Cancer Res 1998;58:4333-4341.
119. Thompson M, Wall DM, Hicks RJ, Prince HM. In vivo tracking for cell therapies. Q J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2005;49:339-348.
120. Choy G, Choyke P, Libutti SK. Current advances in molecular imaging: noninvasive in vivo bioluminescent and fluorescent optical imaging in cancer research. Mol Imaging 2003;2:303-312.
121. Jenkins DE, Yu SF, Hornig YS, et al. In vivo monitoring of tumor relapse and metastasis using bioluminescent PC-3M-luc-C6 cells in murine models of human prostate cancer. Clin Exp Metastasis 2003;20:745-756.
122. Shah K, Jacobs A, Breakefield XO, Weissleder R. Molecular imaging of gene therapy for cancer. Gene Ther 2004;11:1175-1187.
123. Rogers WJ, Meyer CH, Kramer CM. Technology insight: in vivo cell tracking by use of MRI. Nat Clin Pract Cardiovasc Med 2006;3:554-562.
124. Arbab AS, Liu W, Frank JA. Cellular magnetic resonance imaging: current status and future prospects. Expert Rev Med Devices 2006;3:427-439.
125. Cappuzzo F, Hirsch FR, Rossi E, et al. Epidermal growth factor receptor gene and protein and gefitinib sensitivity in non-small-cell lung cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 2005;97:643-655.
126. Dadparvar S, Xiu Y, Srikanthan S, et al. Comparison between FDG-PET and diagnostic radiolabeled anti-CD20 antibody uptake sites. Paper presented at: 51st Annual Meeting of the Society of Nuclear Medicine; June 19-23, 2004; Philadelphia, PA. J Nucl Med 2004;45(suppl):319P.
127. Czernin J, Weber WA, Herschman HR. Molecular imaging in the development of cancer therapeutics. Annu Rev Med 2006;57:99-118.
128. El-Deiry WS, Sigman CC, Kelloff GJ. Imaging and oncologic drug development. J Clin Oncol 2006;24:3261-3273.
129. DiMasi JA, Hansen RW, Grabowski HG. The price of innovation: new estimates of drug development costs. J Health Econ 2003;22:151-185.
130. DiMasi JA. The value of improving the productivity of the drug development process: faster times and better decisions. Pharmacoeconomics 2002;20(suppl):1-10.
131. Leyton J, Alao JP, Da Costa M, et al. In vivo biological activity of the histone deacetylase inhibitor LAQ824 is detectable with 3′-deoxy-3′- [18F]fluorothymidine positron emission tomography. Cancer Res 2006;66:7621-7629.
132. Malet-Martino M, Gilard V, Desmoulin F, Martino R. Fluorine nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy of human biofluids in the field of metabolic studies of anticancer and antifungal fluoropyrimidine drugs. Clin Chim Acta 2006;366:61-73.
133. van Laarhoven HW, Punt CJ, Kamm YJ, Heerschap A. Monitoring fluoropyrimidine metabolism in solid tumors with in vivo (19)F magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Crit Rev Oncol Hematol 2005;56:321-343.