Sexual violence against men in armed conflict

European Journal of International Law

Volumn 18, Issue 2, 2007, Pages 253-276

  Sivakumaran, Sandesh ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF NOTTINGHAM   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 34547860940     PISSN: 09385428     EISSN: 14643596     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/ejil/chm013     Document Type: Article

References (253)

1. Estrich, 'Rape', 95 Yale LJ (198 6) 1087, at 1089, fn 1.
2. See, e.g., in the United States, the Prison Rape Elimination Act of 2003, 42 USC §15601.
3. For some figures and examples, see S. Brownmiller, Against Our Will: Men, Women and Rape (1976), at 3l;
4. Chinkin, Rape and Sexual Abuse of Women in International Law', 5 EJIL (1994) 326, at 327;
5. Copelon, 'Surfacing Gender: Re-engraving Crimes Against Women in Humanitarian Law', 5 Hastings Women's LJ (1994) 243, at 243-4;
6. J.G. Gardam and M.J. Jarvis, Women, Armed Conflict and International Law (2001), at 27-29;
7. Seifert, 'The Second Front: The Logic of Sexual Violence in Wars', 19 Women's Studies International Forum (1996) 35, at 37;
8. K.D. Askin, War Crimes Against Women: Prosecution in International War Crirnes Tribunals (1997), at 1-2.
9. On rape and sexual violence see Shanks et al. 'Responding to Rape', 357 The Lancet (2001) 304, at 304;
10. Coxell et al. 'Lifetime Prevalence, Characteristics, and Associated Problems of Non-consensual Sex in Men: Cross Sectional Survey', 318 Brit Medical J (1999) 846, at 846.
11. On male rape and male sexual violence see King, Coxell, and Mezey, 'The Prevalence and Characteristics of Male Sexual Assault', in G. Mezey and M.B. King (eds), Male Victims of Sexual Assault (2000), at 1, 5;
12. E. Krug et al., World Report on Violence and Health (2002), at 154.
13. Sivakumaran,'Male/Male Rape and the "Taint" of Homosexuality', 27 Human Rts Q (2005) 12 74, at 1288.
14. Stanko and Hobdell, 'Assault on Men: Masculinity and Male Victimization', 33 Brit J Criminology (1993) 400, at 403-4;
15. World Health Organisation, Reproductive Health during Conflict and Displacement (2000), at 112.
16. Mezey and King, 'Treatment for Male Victims of Sexual Assault', in Mezey and King (eds), supra note 4, at 142.
17. Peel et al., 'The Sexual Abuse of Men in Detention in Sri Lanka', 355 The Lancet (2000) 2069, at 2069;
18. Oosterhoff et al., 'Sexual Torture of Men in Croatia and Other Conflict Situations: An Open Secret', 12(23) Reproductive Health Matters (2004) 68, at 68.
19. R.J. McMullen, Male Rape: Breaking the Silence on the Last Taboo (1990), at 83.
20. Van Tienhoven, 'Sexual Torture of Male Victims', 3(4) Torture (1993) 133, at 133.
21. This has a parallel in female victims who have been unable to prove they have been raped being subjected to charges of adultery.
22. Van Tienhoven, supra note 10, at 134; Oosterhoff, supra note 8, at 75 and 68,
23. citing Donnelly and Kenyon, "Honey, we don't do men": Gender Stereotypes and the Provision of Services to Sexually Assaulted Males', 11 J Interpersonal Violence (1996) 441.
24. Oosterhoff, supra note 8, at 74.
25. The search for signs of abuse in women may sometimes go too far: See Engle,'Feminism and its (Dis)contents: Criminalizing Wartime Rape in Bosnia and Herzegovina', 99 AJIL (2005) 778, at 794-5.
26. Carlson, 'The Hidden Prevalence of Male Sexual Assault During War: Observations on Blunt Trauma to the Male Genitals', 46 Brit J Criminology (2006) 16, at 18;
27. Van Tienhoven, supra note 10, at 133.
28. Peel, 'Men as Perpetrators and Victims', in M. Peel (ed.), Rape as a Method of Torture (2004), at 61, 65-66;
29. Peel, supra note 8, at 2069;
30. Oosterhoff, supra note 8, at 71;
31. Burnett and Peel, 'The Health of Survivors of Torture and Organised Violence', 322 Brit Medical J (2001) 606, at 608.
32. Carlson, 'Sexual Assault on Men in War', 349 The Lancet (1997) 129.
33. Finley, 'Breaking Women's Silence in Law: The Dilemma of the Gendered Nature of Legal Reasoning', 64 Notre Dame L Rev (1989) 886, at 888.
34. See also Askin, 'Sexual Violence in Decisions and Indictments of the Yugoslav and Rwandan Tribunals: Current Status', 93 AJIL (1999) 97, at 101 fn 31.
35. Sexual violence against women is often grouped together with sexual violence against children in the same way as women and children tend to be grouped together. Inherent in this grouping is the danger of infantilising women and encouraging the notion that women are in need of protection by men. Accordingly, while appreciating that the dynamics may not be the same in each, this article considers together sexual violence committed against men and boys.
36. For the purposes of this article. I include within the analysis the period immediately prior to the armed conflict, the period immediately after a conflict, as well as the duration of the conflict itself. Periods of internal tensions and disturbances are also included.
37. DelZotto and Jones, 'Male-on-Male Sexual Violence in Wartime: Human Rights'Last Taboo?', Paper presented to the Annual Convention of the International Studies Association', 23-27 Mar. 2002, available at http://adamjones.freeservers.com/malerape.htm
38. R.C. Trexler, Sex and Conquest: Gendered Violence, Political Order, and the European Conquest of the Americas (1995), at 17-19.
39. Jones, 'Cultural and Historical Aspects of Male Sexual Assault', in Mezey and King (eds), supra note 4, at 114.
40. J. S. Goldstein, War and Gender (2001), at 357-359;
41. Trexler, supra note 20, at 17-19.
42. Agger, 'Sexual Torture of Political Prisoners: An Overview', 2 Journal of Traumatic Stress (1989) 305, cited in Oosterhoff, supra note 8, at 68-69;
43. Agger and Jensen, 'Sexuality as a Tool of Political Repression' in H. Riquelme (ed.), Era in Twilight: Pyschocultural Situation under State Terrorism in Latin Arnerica (1994), at 46-47,
44. cited in Carlson, supra note 16, at 129.
45. Cienfuegos and Monelli, 'The Testimony of Political Repression as a Therapeutic Instrument', 54 American Journal of Orthopsychiatry (1983) 43 and Dominguez and Weinstein, 'Aiding Victims of Political Repression in Chile: A Psychological and Psychotherapeutic Approach', 24 Tidsskrift for Norsk Psyckologforening (1987) 75, cited in Oosterhoff, supra note 8, at 68.
46. Perlin, 'The Guatemalan Historical Clarification Commission finds Genocide', 6 ILSA J Int'l and Comp L (2000) 389, at 409 fn 70.
47. Report of Argentina's National Commission on Disappeared People, cited in Skjelsback, 'Sexual Violence in Times of War: A New Challenge for Peace Operations?', 8 Int'l Peacekeeping (2001) 69, at 74.
48. Lindholm et al., 'Gonadal and Sexual Functions in Tortured Greek Men', 27 Danish Medical Bulletin (1980) 243, cited in Carlson, supra note 16, at 129.
49. Adams, 'I have been in torture photos too: The Abu Ghraib images are all too familiar to Irish republicans', Guardian, 5 June 2004.
50. Medical Foundation for the Care of Victims of Torture, Rape and Other Torture in the Chechnya Conflict: Documented Evidence from Asylum Seekers Arriving in the United Kingdom (2004) at 2.
51. Amnesty International, 'Turkey: Kurdish Villagers Torture and Extrajudicially Executed by Security Forces and Deliberately Killed by PKK in "Total Conflict"', AI Index: EUR 44/WU 06/93 External, 30 July 1993.
52. Final Report ofthe United Nations Commission of Experts Established Pursuant to Security Council Resolution 780 (1992), UN Doc. S/1994/674 and UN Doc. S/1994/674/Add.2, v, Annex IX, Rape and Sexual Assault.
53. Peel, supra note 8, at 2069-2070.
54. Report on the Situation of Human Rights in Kuwait under Iraqi Occupation, prepared by Mr Walter Kälin, Special Rapporteur of the Commission on Human Rights, in accordance with Commission resolution 1991/67, UN Doc. E/CN.4/1992/26, paras 106-112.
55. The 'Taguba Report' on Treatment of Abu Ghraib Prisoners in Iraq, available at: http://news.findlaw.com/hdocs/docs/iraq/tagubarpt.html.
56. I. Chang, The Rape of Nanking (1997) at 88-89, 95.
57. BBC News, 'UN to probe Liberian sex crimes', 3 Mar. 2004; Dosso, 'Liberia's war rape victims recount ordeals', Agence France-Presse 17 Oct. 2006.
58. Human Rights Watch, We'll Kill You If You Cry: Sexual Violence in the Sierra Leone Conflict (2003), at 42.
59. Mutua, 'Republic of Kenya Report of the Task Force on the Establishment of a Truth, Justice and Reconciliation Commission', 10 Buffalo Human Rts L Rev (2004) 15, at 39.
60. Steidle,'In Darfur, My Camera Was Not Nearly Enough', Washington Post 20 Mar. 2005, B02.
61. Amnesty International, 'Central African Republic: Five Months of War Against Women', AI Index, AFR 19/001/2004, sect. 3.
62. Amnesty International, 'Burundi: Rape - the Hidden Human Rights Abuse', AI Index: AFR 16/006/2004, 2.
63. UNICEF, Suffering in Silence: A Study of Sexual and Gender Based Violence in Pabbo Camp, Gulu District, Northern Uganda (2005), at 10.
64. See, e.g., Prosecutor v Eliézer Niyitegeka, ICTR-96-14-T, paras 462-467.
65. Human Rights Watch, 'Seeking Justice: The Prosecution of Sexual Violence in the Congo War', Vol. 17 No. 1(A), 20-21;
66. Amnesty International, 'Democratic Republic of Congo: Mass Rape - Time for Remedies', AI Index: AFR 62/018/2004;
67. Médecins sans Frontières, I Have No Joy, No Peace of Mind: Medical, Psychosocial, and Socio-Economic Consequences of Sexual Violence in Eastern DRC (2004), at 6, 15-16;
68. Report on the Situation of Human Rights in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, submitted by the Special Rapporteur, Mr Roberto Garretón, in accordance with Commission on Human Rights resolution 2000/15, UN Doc E/CN.4/2001/40, paras 144 and 162 and UN Doc E/CN.4/2000/ 42, para. 116.
69. Hill, 'Male rape, the latest weapon for Mugabe's men', New Statesman 9 June 2003.
70. Krog,'Locked into Loss and Silence: Testimonies of Gender and Violence at the South African Truth Commission', in C.O.N. Moser and F.C. Clark (eds), Victims, Perpetrators or Actors? Gender, Arrned Conflict and Political Violence (2001), at 203, 208.
71. See, e.g., Amnesty International, Bosnia-Herzegovina: Rape and Sexual Assault by Armed Forces (1993), at 5,
72. cited in Jones, 'Gender and Ethnic Conflict in ex-Yugoslavia', 17 Ethnic and Racial Studies (1994) 115, at 132, fn 23.
73. See, e.g., Letter dated 5 Nov. 1992 from the Permanent Representative of the United States of America to the United Nations Addressed to the Secretary General, UN Doc. S/24791, at 16 (10 Nov. 1992);
74. Letter dated 7 Dec. 1992 from the Deputy Representative of the United States of America to the United Nations addressed to the Secretary General, UN Doc. S/24918, at 12 (8 Dec. 1992).
75. Final Report Pursuant to Security Council Resolution 780 (1992), supra note 31.
76. Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro)), Application of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, paras 44D(c), (h), 62;
77. Oral Proceedings of Bosnia and Herzegovina, CR 2006/6, at 51.
78. See, e.g., Prosecutor v. Duško Tadić, Opinion and Judgment, IT-94-1-T, paras 193-206;
79. Prosecutor v. Milomir Stakić, Trial Judgment, IT-97-24, para. 241;
80. Prosecutor v. Cesić, Sentencing Judgment, IT-95-10/l-S, paras 13-14;
81. Prosecutor v. Stevan Todorovic, Sentencing Judgment, IT-95-9/1-S, paras 38-40;
82. Prosecutor v. Blagoje Simić, Miroslav Tadić and Siom Zarć Trial Judgment, IT-95-9-T, para. 728.
83. See also Prosecutor v. Radovan Karadžić, and Ratko Mladić Review of the Indictments Pursuant to Rule 61 of the Rules of Procedure and Evidence, IT-95-5-R61 and IT-95-18-R61, para. 13.
84. Amnesty International, supra note 44, at 19.
85. Human Rights Watch, supra note 44, at 20 and 5 respectively.
86. Médecins sans Frontières, supra note 44, at 15.
87. Some commentators are of the view that analysis pertaining to sexual violence against women can be applied to that against men: See, e.g., Fitzgerald, 'Problems of Prosecution and Adjudication of Rape and Other Sexual Assaults under International Law', 8 EJIL (1997) 638, at fn 2;
88. Mitchell, 'The Prohibition of Rape in International Humanitarian Law as a Norm of Jus Cogens: Clarifying the Doctrine', 15 Duke J Comp and Int'l L 2 19, at fn 3.
89. For a note of caution, see Engle, supra note 13, at 814-815.
90. Others believe the issues are dissimilar: E.g., Niarchos, 'Women, War and Rape: Challenges Facing the International Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia', 17 Human Rts Q (1995) 649, at 653 fn 13.
91. For discussion of the jurisprudence of the ICTY on sexual violence see Viseur Sellers, 'Individual(s') Liability for Collective Sexual Violence', in K. Knop (ed.), Gender and Human Rights (2004), at 153.
92. Carpenter, 'Recognizing Gender-Based Violence Against Civilian Men and Boys in Conflict Situations', 37 Security Dialogue (2006) 83, at 98-99.
93. See, e.g., Women, Peace and Security: Study submitted by the Secretary-General pursuant to Security Council resolution 1325 (2000), at 16, para. 59.
94. See, e.g., Amnesty International, supra note 40, sect. 3; WHO, supra note 6, at 109.
95. See, e.g., Amnesty International, 'Who's living in my house? Obstacles to the safe return of refugees and internally displaced people', AI Index: EUR 63/01/97, at 5.
96. Final report submitted by Ms Gay J McDougall, Special Rapporteur, Contemporary forms of slavery: Systematic rape, sexual slavery and slavery-like practices during armed conflict, E/CN.4/Sub.2/1998/13, paras 21-22.
97. Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, art. 7(1)(g).
98. Ibid., art. 9(1).
99. Elements of Crimes, Art. 7(1)(g)-6, element 1. See Robinson, 'Article 7(1)(g) - Rape, Sexual Slavery, Enforced Prostitution, Forced Pregnancy, Enforced Sterilization, or Any Other Form of Sexual Violence of Comparable Gravity', in R.S. Lee (ed.), The International Criminal Court: Elements of Crimes and Rules of Procedure and Evidence (2001), at 93;
100. La Haye, 'Article 8(2)(b)(xxii)-6-Sexual Violence', in ibid., at 196-199;
101. Steains, 'Gender Issues', in R. S. Lee (ed.), The International Criminal Court: The Making of the Rome Statute (1999), at 357.
102. Another possible offence under this category may be forced marriage: See Prosecutor v. Brima, Kamara and Kann, Case SCSL-04-16-PT, Decision on prosecution request for leave to amend the indictment (6 May 2004).
103. DelZotto and Jones, supra note 20, observe that'[f]or centuries, men and boys who were captured in, or as a result of, combat became the "body servants" (sex slaves) of western warriors, or the "brides of warriors in Mesoamerica"';
104. Askin, supra note 3, at 366 references the 'forced prostitution of a male' in the context of the conflict in the former Yugoslavia. Both of these are certainly found in the male prison environment: See, e.g., Human Rights Watch, No Escape: Male Rape in US Prisons (2001);
105. O'Donnell, 'Prison Rape in Context', 44 Brit J Criminology (2004) 241, at 244.
106. Also relevant but not considered in this article is the idea that the rape of women may constitute psychological torture ofmen. See Carpenter, supra note 57, at 96-97.
107. Kesic, 'A Response to Catharine MacKinnon's Article "Turning Rape Into Pornography: Postmodern Genocide"', 5 Hastings Women's LJ (1994) 267, at 278.
108. For the reader who does wish to skip over the relevant parts, this consists of the next three pages.
109. I associate myself with similar reasoning put forward by Chinkin, supra note 3, at 329, fn 22;
110. MacKinnon, 'On Torture: A Feminist Perspective on Human Rights', in K.E. Mahoney and P. Mahoney (eds.), Human Rights in the Twenty-First Century: A Global Challenge (1993), at 21, 22, fn 6 and Askin, supra note 3, pp. xv-xvi.
111. Carpenter, supra note 57, at 95.
112. Peel, supra note 8, at 2069.
113. Taguba Report, supra note 34, Part One (Detainee Abuse): Findings, para. 8 (ee) and (gg).
114. Krog, supra note 46, at 208.
115. Chang, supra note 35, at 95.
116. Final Report of the United Nations Commission of Experts supra note 31, UN Doc. S/1994/674, at 56, para. 235
117. and UN Doc. S/1994/674/Add. 2, Vol. V, Annex IX, at 11, para. 20,
118. at 40, paras 179-180, at 41, para. 183.
119. Prosecutor v. Milomir Stakić, Trial Judgment, IT-97-24, para. 241.
120. Prosecutor v. Cesić, Sentencing Judgment, IT-95-10/1-S, paras 13-14.
121. Prosecutor v. Blagoje Simić, Miroslav Tadić and Siom Zarić Trial Judgment, IT-95-9-T, para. 728.
122. Prosecutor v. Stevan Todorovic, Sentencing judgment, IT-95-9/1-S, paras 39-40.
123. For a list of possible consequences, see WHO, Guidelines for Medico-Legal Care for Victims of Sexual Violence (2003), at 12-16.
124. OSCE, Kosovo/Kosova: As Seen, As Told (1999), ch. 7.
125. DelZotto and Jones, supra note 20.
126. Final Report of the United Nations Commission of Experts, supra note 31, UN Doc. S/1994/674/Add. 2, Vol. V, Annex IX, at 11, para. 18 (g).
127. See also at 40, paras 179-180 and
128. at 41, para. 183.
129. Report on the situation of human rights in the territory of the former Yugoslavia submitted by Mr Tadeusz Mazowiecki, Special Rapporteur of the Commission on Human Rights, pursuant to Commission resolution 1992/S-1/1 of 14 Aug. 1992, E/CN.4/1993/50, para. 63.
130. Application of Genocide Convention, supra note 50, Application of Bosnia and Herzegovina, paras 44D(h) and 61.
131. Prosecutor v. Radovan Karadžić and Ratko Mladić, Review of the Indictments Pursuant to Rule 61 of the Rules of Procedure and Evidence, IT-95-5-R61 and IT-95-18-R61, para. 13.
132. Prosecutor v. Duško Tadić, Opinion and Judgment, IT-94-1-T, para. 206.
133. OSCE, supra note 82, ch. 7.
134. Application of the Convention, supra note 50, para. 44D(c).
135. See, e.g., Peel, supra note 8, at 2069;
136. Adams, supra note 28.
137. Peel, supra note 8, at 2069.
138. OSCE, supra note 82, ch. 7.
139. Taguba Report, supra note 34, Part One (Detainee Abuse): Findings, para. 6.
140. Ibid.
141. Peel, supra note 8, at 2069.
142. WHO, supra note 81, at 16.
143. Brownmiller, supra note 3, at 15;
144. A.N. Groth, Men Who Rape (1979), at 2;
145. MacKinnon, 'Reflections on Sex Equality Under Law', 100 Yale LJ (1991) 1281, at 1302-1303.
146. Groth, supra note 98, at 126-130;
147. M. Scarce, Male on Male Rape: The Hidden Toll of Stigma and Shame (1997), at 10.
148. Mackinnon, 'Rape, Genocide, and Women's Human Rights', in A. Stiglmayer (ed.), Mass Rape: The War Against Women in Bosnia-Herzegovina (1994), at 183, 188-189;
149. Seifert, 'War and Rape: A Preliminary Analysis', in ibid., at 54, 55;
150. Chinkin, supra note 3, at 328.
151. DelZotto and Jones, supra note 20.
152. MacKinnon, supra note 98, at 1302;
153. Sivakumaran, supra note 5, at 1281-1282.
154. Seifert, supra note 3, at 41.
155. Jones, 'Straight as a Rule: Heteronormativity, Gendercide, and the Noncombatant Male', 8 Men and Masculinities (2006) 451, at 462.
156. Wing and Merchán, 'Rape, Ethnicity, and Culture: Spirit Injury from Bosnia to Black America', 25 Columbia Human Rts L Rev (1994) 1, at 20-25.
157. Report of the Special Rapporteur on violence against women, its causes and consequences, Ms Radhika Coomaraswamy, submitted in accordance with Commission resolution 1997/44, UN Doc E/CN.4/1998/54, para. 12.
158. Seifert, supra note 100, at 59.
159. Brownmiller, supra note 3, at 38.
160. Preliminary report submitted by the Special Rapporteur on violence against women, its causes and consequences, Ms Radhika Coomaraswamy, in accordance with Commission on Human Rights resolution 1994/45, UN Doc. E/ CN.4/1995/42, para. 64.
161. Zarkov, 'The Body of the Other Man: Sexual Violence and the Construction of Masculinity, Sexuality and Ethnicity in Croatian Media', in Moser and Clark (eds.), supra note 46, at 69, 77.
162. Report on the situation of human rights in the territory of the former Yugoslavia submitted by Mr Tadeusz Mazowiecki, supra note 85, Annex II, para. 48(a);
163. Wagner, 'The Systematic Use of Rape as a Tool of War in Darfur: A Blueprint for International War Crimes Prosecutions', 37 Georgetown J Int'l L (2005) 193, at 205;
164. Nowrojee, 'Making the Invisible War Crime Visible: Post-Conflict Justice for Sierra Leone's Rape Victims', 18 Harvard Human Rts J (2005) 85, at 89.
165. Dutton et al., 'Extreme Mass Homicide: From Military Massacre to Genocide', 10 Aggression and Violent Behaviour (2005) 437, at 464: '[t]he raping of family members in front of their family suggest that knowledge of a human social taboo against family sex is part ofthe consciousness ofthe rapist. Its function is to generate a human emotion, humiliation'.
166. Askin, supra note 3, at 262-263.
167. B. Allen, Rape Warfare (1996), at 62-63.
168. For reports of male sexual violence committed in public see Amnesty International, supra note 44, at 19;
169. Oosterhoff, supra note 8, at 74.
170. Report of the Special Rapporteur on violence against women, its causes and consequences, Ms Radhika Coomaraswamy, submitted in accordance with Commission on Human Rights resolution 2000/45: Violence against women perpetrated and/or condoned by the State during times of armed conflict (1997-2000), UN Doc. E/CN.4/2001/73, para. 44.
171. Prosecutor v. Dragoljub Kunarac, Radomir Kovac and Zoran Vukovic, IT-96-23-T & IT-96-23-1/T, paras 766-774 (22 Feb. 2001).
172. Ibid., para. 782. It is likely that before the ICC, similar treatment would fall within the crimes against humanity of 'other sexual violence of comparable gravity' rather than 'other inhumane acts' for the Statute of the ICTY was relatively limited in explicitly mentioning crimes of a sexual nature, and hence these were sometimes considered under the heading of'other inhumane acts'. The Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court is more expansive in its consideration of sexual offences.
173. Van Tienhoven, supra note 10, at 134.
174. Human Rights Watch, supra note 44, at 21.
175. Sivakumaran, supra note 5, at 1289.
176. Stanko and Hobdell, supra note 6, at 413.
177. Donaldson, 'Rape of Males', in W.R. Dynes (ed.), Encyclopaedia of Homosexuality (1990), ii, at 1094, 1094.
178. Women, Peace and Security, supra note 58, at 16, para. 59.
179. Jones, supra note 104, at 453.
180. Allen, supra note 114, at 27-28;
181. Skjelsbaek, supra note 26, at 71.
182. Amnesty International, supra note 44, at 19.
183. MacKinnon, supra note 98, at 1307, fn 121.
184. Peel, supra note 15, at 66.
185. Wing and Merchán, supra note 105, at 20-25;
186. Fitzgerald, supra note 55, at 650.
187. This should not be overstated: See Engle, supra note 13, at 807-808;
188. Salzman, 'Rape Camps as a Means of Ethnic Cleansing: Religious, Cultural, and Ethical Reponses to Rape Victims in the Former Yugoslavia', 20 Human Rts Q (1998) 348, at 368.
189. Amnesty International, supra note 44, at 19.
190. Brownmiller, supra note 3, at 79-80;
191. Wing and Merchán, supra note 105, at 20-25;
192. Askin, supra note 3, at 267-270;
193. Wagner, supra note 111, at 205 and 213.
194. Again, cf. Engle, supra note 13, at 807-808.
195. This is not new - see T. Meron, Bloody Constraint: War and Chivalry in Shakespeare (1998), at 59-60.
196. Jones, supra note 104, at 452.
197. DelZotto and Jones, supra note 20.
198. Iraqi prisoner cited in MacKinnon, 'Women's September 11th: Rethinking the International Law of Conflict', 47 Harvard Int'l L J (2006) 1, at 25.
199. Oosterhoff, supra note 8, at 75.
200. In the UK, this was as late as 1994 with the introduction of the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act. This is another way in which the traditional stereotypes that (1) men cannot be victims and (2) it is women that are in need of protection are reinforced.
201. On instances of female warriorship see Goldstein, supra note 22, at 59-127;
202. B. Ehrenreich, Blood Rites: Origins and History of the Passion of War (1997), at 126.
203. As Ehrenreich later notes, at 230: '[t]he degendering of war does not mean that "masculinity" will cease to be a desirable attribute; only that it will be an attribute that women as well as men can possess'.
204. Seifert, supra note 100, at 60;
205. Goldstein, supra note 22, at 374.
206. Zarkov, supra note 110, at 79.
207. Sivakumaran, supra note 5, at 1293-1299.
208. On the status of sexual orientation in international law see Sanders, 'Human Rights and Sexual Orientation in International Law', available at http://www.ilga.org
209. E. Heinze, Sexual Orientation: A Human Right (1995);
210. R. Wintemute, Sexual Orientation and Human Rights (1995).
211. Groth, supra note 98, at 138-139;
212. American Medical Association, 'Strategies for the Treatment and Prevention of Sexual Assault', at 21;
213. Peel, supra note 8, at 2069-2070.
214. Peel, supra note 15, at 67.
215. Sivakumaran, supra note 5, at 1298.
216. WHO, supra note 81, at 16.
217. Van Tienhoven, supra note 10, at 134;
218. Oosterhoff, supra note 8, at 74;
219. Balkan Investigative Reporting Network, 'The Last Taboo', Justice Report, No. 8 (21 Apr. 2006).
220. Van Tienhoven, supra note 10, at 134.
221. Application of the Genocide Convention, supra note 50, para. 44D(c).
222. Final Report of the United Nations Commission of Experts, supra note 31, UN Doc. S/1994/674, at 59-60, para. 250(b).
223. WHO, supra note 81, at 16.
224. See generally Chinkin, supra note 3, at 330;
225. Fisher, 'Occupation ofthe Womb: Forced Impregnation as Genocide', 46 Duke LJ (1996) 91;
226. Salzman, supra note 130, at 365-366.
227. See generally Fisher, supra note 152;
228. Boon, 'Rape and Forced Pregnancy Under the ICC Statute: Human Dignity, Autonomy, and Consent', 32 Columbia Human Rts L Rev(2001) 625;
229. Carpenter, 'Surfacing Children: Limitations of Genocidal Rape Discourse', 22 Human Rts Q(2000) 428.
230. Copelon, supra note 3, at 256.
231. Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, Art. 7(1)(g) lists forced pregnancy as a crime against humanity.
232. ICC Elements of Crimes, Art. 7(1)(g)-5, element 1.
233. Seifert, supra note 3, at 39;
234. Kapur, 'The Tragedy of Victimization Rhetoric: Resurrecting the "Native" Subject in International/Post-Colonial Feminist Legal Politics', 15 Harvard Human Rts J (2002) 1, at 22.
235. On the imagery between the body and the state see Knop, 'Re/Statements: Feminism and State Sovereignty in International Law', 3 Transnational L & Contemporary Problems (1993) 293, at 326.
236. Seifert, supra note 3, at 39.
237. Zarkov, supra note 110, at 78.
238. Jones, supra note 104, at 460.
239. See, e.g., Amnesty International, supra note 40, sect. 3;
240. Helsinki Watch, War Critnes in Bosnia-Herzegovina: Vol. II (1993), at 339,
241. cited in Jones, supra note 47, at 132, fn 12.
242. King, Coxell and Mezey, supra note 4, at 12;
243. American Medical Association, supra note 143, at 26.
244. On the impact of armed conflict on women see: Gardam and Charlesworth, 'Protection of Women in Armed Conflict', 22 Human Rts Q (2000) 148;
245. Gardam, 'Women and the Law of Armed Conflict: Why the Silence?', 46 Int'l & Comp LQ (1997) 55.
246. On men see: Jones, 'Gendercide and Genocide', 2 J of Genocide Research (2000) 185;
247. Carpenter, supra note 57.
248. See, e.g., Engle, supra note 13, at 810-815;
249. Jones, supra note 163.
250. Gribbin, 'Sexual Assault and Rape', 14 Current Obstetrics and Gynaecology (2004) 356, at 357;
251. Nowrojee, supra note 111, at 94;
252. Fitzgerald, supra note 55, at 659.
253. WHO, supra note 6, at 111.